Human Development
Development Parenting styles Cognition
DNA
Theories of development Conception
Genes
Developmental theorists Assimilation
Genotype Teratogenic effects Threshold effect
Phenotype Imprinting
Accommodation
Gamete
Stranger anxiety Germinal stage
Zygote
Theory theory
Embryonic stage
Attachment Theory of mind Fetal stage
Interaction effect Apgar scale Critical periods
Addiction
Dizygotic/Monozygotic twins
Preoperational Stage
Piaget suggested that from 2 years old to about 6-7 years old,
children are in the preoperational stage—too young to
perform mental operations. For example, in this stage do not
understand the concept of conservation, the principle that
quantity remains the same despite changes in shape.
This preoperational child does not yet understand the principle of conservation of
substance. Video…
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Concrete Operational Stage
In the concrete operational stage, given concrete
materials, 6- to 7-year-olds grasp conservation
problems and mentally pour liquids back and
forth into glasses of different shapes conserving
their quantities.
Children in this stage are also able to transform
mathematical functions. So, if 4 + 8 = 12, then a
transformation, 12 – 4 = 8, is also easily doable.
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Erik Erikson, Psychosocial Development
• Erikson maintains that development occurs
through a series of basic crises.
• Erikson describes the basic crises of infancy and
toddlerhood as those of trust v mistrust and
autonomy v shame and doubt
• In Eriksons’s view, parental guidance and
protection are the keys to the child’s gaining a
healthy sense of autonomy.
• Infants who fail to develop trust or achieve
autonomy may become adults who are suspicious
and pessimistic or who are burdened by shame.
Erikson’s, Psychosocial Development
• Infant
Trust vs Mistrust
Needs maximum comfort with minimal uncertainty
to trust himself/herself, others, and the environment
• Toddler
Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
Works to master physical environment while maintaining
self-esteem
• Preschooler
Initiative vs Guilt
Begins to initiate, not imitate, activities; develops
conscience and sexual identity
• School-Age Child
Industry vs Inferiority
Tries to develop a sense of self-worth by refining skills
• Adolescent
Identity vs Role Confusion
Tries integrating many roles (child, sibling, student, athlete,
worker) into a self-image under role model and peer pressure
• Young Adult
Intimacy vs Isolation
Learns to make personal commitment to another
as
spouse, parent or partner
• Middle-Age Adult
Generativity vs Stagnation
Seeks satisfaction through productivity in career,
family, and
civic interests
• Older Adult
Integrity vs Despair
Reviews life accomplishments, deals with loss
and preparation for death
• Social comparisons develop soon after
children enter grade school (around age 5 or
6)
• Children begin to make comparisons with
other children, a process known as social
comparisons
• Competence and autonomy are important
components of social comparisons…children
begin to recognize one’s own abilities as
relative to other children
• During this time children show an increase
awareness of social situations
Gender Identity
• Sex is defined by biology
• The child learns to identify themselves as male
or female…body shape, pregnancy
• Gender is defined by the child’s culture
• Gender is a shared cultural definition of what
it means to be masculine or feminine
• Gender roles are cultural expectations about
the appropriate behavior for each gender
Freud’s Psycho-Sexual Theory
• Freud suggested that children identify with
their same-sex parent
• Identification provides the foundation for
gender identity
• Anxiety and a desire for power provides the
motivation for identification
• Focusing on emotional identification is one
way to explain the powerful gender roles that
most people accept as part of their selfconcept
Social Learning Theory
• Social learning theorists use the concept of
modeling to explain gender identity
• Children observe differences in gendered
behavior, they model their own behavior after
the behavior of people they perceive to be like
themselves
• Media also provides stereotyped models for
learning gender roles
• Gender appropriate behaviors are also
reinforced by parents, peers, and other
members of their culture
Bem’s Gender Schema Theory
• According to Bem’s gender schema theory, the
child is an active participant in processing
gender specific information
• The child seeks out information about gender
because masculinity and femininity are
cognitively and culturally significant categories
• As the child’s general cognitive abilities
mature, their gender schemas also become
more sophisticated
Attachment
• Mary Ainsworth has developed laboratory procedure
for measuring the security of attachment
• The procedure is called the Strange Situation-infants’
reactions to the comings and going of their mothers
and to friendly strangers are monitored
• Fully formed fear emerges at about 9 months. One
expression of this new emotion is stranger wariness,
which emerges between 9 and 14 months; another is
separation anxiety, or fear of abandonment, which
becomes most obvious at 9 to 14 months.
• Approaching and following their caregivers are signs of
proximity-seeking behaviors, while holding and
cuddling are signs of contact; maintaining these
behaviors are signs of attachment
• A secure attachment (TypeB) is one in which the
infant derives comfort and confidence from the
caregiver-this is a type of attachment in which
the caregiver acts as a base for exploration
• Insecure-avoidant attachment (Type A)-infants
who display insecure attachment may engage in
little interaction with their mothers and show no
apparent distress when they leave
• Insecure-resistant/ambivalent
attachment(TypeC)- infants show an inconsistent
mixture of behavior toward their mothers, such
as both resisting and seeking contact
• Disorganized attachment (TypeD)- found in the
most troubled infants
• Contact is a key to attachment
• Familiarity is another key to attachment
• Critical periods are the optimal periods when
certain events must take place to facilitate
proper development
• Parenting styles will foster attachment in later
developmental stages
• Parenting styles
• Authoritarian, Authoritative,Permissive,Neglectful
Parenting Styles
Practice
Description
Authoritarian
Parents impose rules and expect
obedience.
Permissive
Parents submit to children’s
demands.
Authoritative
Parents are demanding but
responsive to their children.
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According to epigenetic theory, every human characteristic is strongly influenced
by each person’s unique genotype
Temperament refers to “constitutionally based” individual differences in emotions,
activity, and self-control
Infants are born with distinct temperaments that are genetic in origin and affect
their personality
Personality traits are generally considered to be primarily learned; temperamental
traits are considered to be primarily genetic
According to the New York Longitudinal Study (NYLS), infants can be described as
possessing one of four temperaments:
1. easy-(40 percent)
2. slow to warm up-(15 percent)
3. difficult-(10 percent)
4. hard to classify-(35 percent)
• An important factor in healthy psychosocial
development is the goodness of fit between
the developing child and the caregiving
context
• If attachment is not developed between
caregiver and infant, severe depression or
other serious problems may arise…post
partum depression, developmental delays,
failure to thrive
• Failure to thrive is the diagnosis for an infant
who does not grow, develop, or gain weight
on schedule
Social Development
Stranger anxiety is the fear of strangers that develops at
around 8 months. This is the age at which infants form
schemas for familiar faces and cannot assimilate a new
face.
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• Adolescence begins with puberty…puberty
indicates sexual maturity (only)
• Puberty refers to the rapid physical growth and
sexual maturation that end childhood, eventually
producing a person of adult size and sexual
potential
• Primary sex characteristic- the reproductive
organs and external genitalia
• Primary sex characteristics refer to organs
involved in conception and pregnancy…vagina,
uterus, ovaries, testicles, and penis
• Secondary sex characteristics-the nonreproductive traits such as breasts and hips, facial
hair and deepened voice in boys
Secondary Sexual Characteristics
Also secondary sexual characteristics—the
nonreproductive traits such as breasts and hips in
girls and facial hair and deepening of voice in boys
develop.
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• For girls, the sequence of biological changes of
puberty is….
• The growth of nipples
• First pubic hairs
• Height spurt
• First menstrual cycle, menarche
• Final pubic-hair growth
• Full breast development
• The first set of publicly visible changes during
puberty is the growth spurt…a sudden, uneven
increase in the size of almost every body part
• Sex hormones
• In adolescence, the pituitary glands activate the gonads or
the sex glands…the gonadotrophin-releasing hormones
causes the gonads to increase production of estrogen and
androgens…estrogen for girls and testosterone for boys
• The sex hormones affect the body’s shape and functioning,
including production of other hormones that regulate
stress and immunity…estradiol and testosterone levels may
also explain sex differences in psychopathology
• The behaviors triggered by hormones are responses to
moodiness and lust
• Certain behaviors are influenced by
biology…aggressiveness, males produce more testosterone
• Culture influences the gender roles, thus influencing how
those behaviors manifest
• Culture/biology influences sexual behaviors
•
Age of puberty varies among ethnic groups, most likely because of genes…African
American females reach puberty earlier than others
•
For both sexes, malnutrition delays puberty…the secular trend indicates that it
causes puberty to start earlier and make people shorter, and has stopped in
developed nations
•
Stress affects puberty hormones by increasing production
•
Cohorts are also influencing for early maturing boys…delinquency training
•
Early maturing girls tend to experience depression, have more boyfriends, lower
self-esteem, and poorer body image
•
Early maturing males engage in delinquent behavior, start drinking earlier, engage
in sexual behaviors earlier, and are more aggressive than later maturing boys
•
Later maturing boys also engage in delinquent behavior which may be due to
depression and self-esteem issues, afraid of sex, and more anxious
•
Development continues into the emerging adulthood period…cognitive,
psychosocial
Emerging Adulthood
Emerging adulthood spans from the late-teens to the midtwenties. During this time, young adults may live with
their parents and attend college or work. On average,
emerging adults marry in their mid-twenties.
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Developing Morality
Kohlberg (1981, 1984) sought to describe the development
of moral reasoning by posing moral dilemmas to children
and adolescents, such as “Should a person steal medicine
to save a loved one’s life?”
Hurricane Katrina victims were faced with a moral dilemma:
Should they help themselves to household necessities?
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3 Basic Levels of Moral Thinking
1.
Preconventional Morality: Before age 9, children show
morality to avoid punishment or gain reward.
2.
Conventional Morality: By early adolescence, social
rules and laws are upheld for their own sake.
3.
Postconventional Morality: Affirms people’s agreedupon rights or follows personally perceived ethical
principles.
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Kohlberg’s, Moral development
• Level I (preconventional)
• Stage I-Obedience and Punishment orientation (similar to Piaget 1st
stage) –It’s wrong to steal because you’ll get punished, rewards
from the outside world
• Stage 2-Individualism and Exchange-different individuals have
different viewpoints –What’s in it for me? (self-interests),
punishments from the external world
• Level II (conventional)
• Stage 3-Interpersonal accord and conformity- social norms-people
should live up to others’ expectations of the family and community
and behave in good ways-he loves his wife; no husband should let
his wife die (good boy/g) adolescents value loyalty to others as a
basis for moral judgments
• Stage 4-Authority and Maintaining Social Order-obeying the law,
respecting authority-what would happen if we all started stealing?
Cannot condone theft social order, justice and duty are important
in making decisions
• Level III (Post conventional)
• Stage 5-Social Contract and Individual Rights-it
is a human’s basic right to live and this
supersedes the law (moralistic) the
importance of individual rights are the basis
for moral decisions
• Stage 6-Universal Principles-there should not
be a law that protects some and hurts others(
uphold social contracts and laws that promote
a good society) universal ethical principles,
complete selflessness
Marica’s Stages of Identity
Development
• Identity-diffusion the individual does not
have firm commitments regarding the issues
in question and is not making progress toward
them
• Foreclosure-the individual has not engaged in
any identity experimentation and has not
established an identity based on the choices
or values of others
• Moratorium-the individual is exploring various
choices but has not yet made a clear
commitment to any of them
• Identity achievement-the individual has
attained a coherent committed identity based
on personal decisions
• During this time of identity development,
adolescents rely less on parents’ views and
defer instead to peers
Psychologists once viewed
adulthood as one long
plateau, but now feel that
development continues
through our adult lives.
Rick Doyle/ Corbis
Though stages are difficult to
define in adulthood, based on
our similarities in
development we use three
terms, early, middle, and late
adulthood.
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Cognitive changes in late adulthood
• As neurogenesis slows down, the memory
functions decrease
• Crystalized intelligence, accumulated
knowledge may remain stable, but fluid
intelligence, intelligence for reasoning,
thinking quickly and abstractly declines
• Older adults may find it necessary to resort to
memory cues…
Adulthood’s Ages and Stages
Life events trigger life stage transitions at
varying ages. The social clock – the culturally
preferred timing of social events – varies from
era to era and culture to culture. For instance,
the once rigid schedule for Western women has
now loosened.
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Aging and Memory
• Recognition memory does
not decline with age, and
material that is meaningful
is recalled better than
meaningless material.
• Some older adults suffer
from biologically based
cognitive impairments in
which the brain is so
adversely affected by aging
that it becomes very
difficult for the person to
continue to function
effectively.
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Successful Aging
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Death and Dying
The “normal” range of reactions or grief stages after the death
of a loved one varies widely. Grief is more severe if death
occurs unexpectedly. People who view their lives with a sense
of integrity (in Erikson’s terms) see life as meaningful and
worthwhile.
Life satisfaction before, during the year of, and after a spouse’s death
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Friends and Relatives
• DEATH OF A SPOUSE
– Another common event that long-married older
adults must face is the death of their spouse.
– Adjustment to being widowed is especially
difficult during the first two years after the death.
– Because women tend to marry older men, the
average married woman experiences 4 to 10 years
of widowhood and the average man, none.