Chapter 20
Foreign and Military
Policy
The Shape of the Twentieth Century
The history of the twentieth century can be
summarized--excessively briefly--in five
propositions:
First, that the history of the twentieth century was
overwhelmingly economic history.
Second, that the twentieth century saw the
material wealth of humankind explode beyond all
previous imagining.
Third, that because of advances in
technology, productivity, and organization-and the feelings of social dislocation and
disquiet that these advances generated--the
twentieth century’s tyrannies were the most
brutal and barbaric in history.
Fourth, that the twentieth century saw the
relative economic gulf between different
economies grow at a rapid pace.
.
Fifth and last, that economic policy-the management of their
economies by governments--in the
twentieth century was at best inept.
Little was known or learned about
how to manage a market or a mixed
economy.
Globalization
 Write
a short paragraph about what
the term means to you?
Listen to Definition Given By Tom
Friedman, New York Times
http://www.lexusandtheolivetree.com/a
udiolist.htm
Effects of the September 11 attacks
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Public consciousness about international terrorism
Outbursts of patriotism
Confidence in government
Emergence of important fundamental questions
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How to wage a "war" against terrorism?
How to hold other nations accountable?
How to act when other nations fight terrorism?
Does such a war require military to be redesigned?
Reemergence of classic questions

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Do we only support nations that are reasonably free and
democratic?
Are we the world's policemen?
Foreign Policy
THEME A
Foreign Policy As Majoritarian Politics
To many outside observers,
democracies can not apply the firmness
of purpose, efficiency of execution,
secrecy, and patience that effective
foreign policy requires.
Majoritarian politics
concerns itself with the
issues of war, peace,
and global diplomacy.
Majoritarian politics

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Perceived to confer widespread benefits, impose
widespread costs
Examples

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War
Military alliances
Nuclear test ban or strategic arms limitation treaties
Response to Berlin blockade by Soviets
Cuban missile crisis
Covert CIA operations
Diplomatic recognition of People's Republic of China
Interest group politics
tariff battles in which
the user of imports as
well as their opponents
(workers) are well
organized.
Interest group politics


Identifiable groups pitted against one another for
costs, benefits
Examples


Cyprus policy: Greeks versus Turks
Tariffs: Japanese versus steel
Client Politics
Providing aid to
corporations or
American historical
support of Israel
Client politics


Benefits to identifiable group, without apparent
costs to any distinct group
Example: Israel policy (transformation to interest
group politics?)
Entrepreneurial politics:

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Congress the central political arena
When a multinational corporation is
caught in a scandal
Free Trade Negotiations
Removal of Tariffs/Domestic Subsidies
Who has power?



Majoritarian politics: president dominates; public
opinion supports but does not guide
Interest group or client politics: larger
congressional role
Entrepreneurial politics: Congress the central
political arena
The Supreme Court has
fairly consistently held that
the conduct of foreign
policy is a political
question to be decided
between the president and
congress.
The president is commander in chief
of the armed forces, appoints
ambassadors, and negotiates treaties.
The Senate approves treaties and
ambassadorial appointments.
Congress must appropriate money to
fund military ventures and it alone
can declare war.
Congressional limitations on the president:
1. Limits economic aid to other countries.
2. War Powers Act - which requires
congressional approval of any commitment
of troops over 60 days.
Chadha case - the Supreme Court struck
down a portion of the act that authorized
legislative vetoes to control arms sales
abroad.
3. Congressional intelligence oversight
committees to control CIA activities,
including covert operations
In times of crisis the public
supports the president.
Mass opinion supports war
policies as long as they appear
successful.
Presidential box score - No Declaration of
War
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1801: Jefferson sends navy to Barbary
1845: Polk sends troops to Mexico
1861: Lincoln blockades Southern ports
1940: FDR sends destroyers to Britain
1950: Truman sends troops to Korea
1960s: Kennedy and Johnson send forces to Vietnam
1983: Reagan sends troops to Grenada
1989: Bush orders invasion of Panama
1990: Bush sends forces into Kuwait
1999: Clinton orders bombing of Serbian forces
2001: Bush sends troops to Afghanistan
2003: Bush Sends troops to Iraq
THEME B
The Foreign Policy Elite
Public opinion provides support for
presidential initiatives in foreign
policy but no specific direction. In
foreign policy, more than in other
policy areas elite worldviews.
THEME B
The Foreign Policy Elite
A world view is a more or less
comprehensive picture of critical
problems facing the United States in
the world and the appropriate ways of
responding
Mass versus elite opinion

Mass opinion
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Generally poorly informed
Generally supportive of president
Conservative, less internationalist
Elite opinion
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Better informed
Opinions change more rapidly (Vietnam)
Protest on moral or philosophical grounds
More internationalist
Four Worldviews
1. Isolationism - prior to Munich and
Pearl Harbor
2. Containment and Antiappeasement
3. Vietnam Paradigm - Disengagement
or Neo-isolationism
4. Human Rights
Isolation paradigm
Opposes involvement in
European wars
 Adopted after World War
I because war
accomplished little

Containment paradigm
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Reaction to appeasement of Hitler in Munich
Pearl Harbor ended isolationism in United States
Postwar policy to resist Soviet expansionism
Disengagement ("Vietnam")
paradigm

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Reaction to military defeat and political disaster of
Vietnam
Crisis interpreted in three ways

Correct worldview but failed to try hard enough

Correct worldview but applied in wrong place

Worldview itself wrong
Requires Complex Cost Benefit Analysis
Human rights Paradigm
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

Clinton had a disinterest in foreign policy and his
advisors believed in disengagement.
Clinton's strongest congressional supporters argued
against the Gulf War but advocated military intervention
in Kosovo.
Change in view explained by concern for human rights
and belief that situation in Kosovo amounted to
genocide
Conservatives who supported containment in Gulf War
urged disengagement in Kosovo
New Paradigm – Disarmament
 The
politics of coalition building
 Should
the United States act "alone?"
 If so, in what circumstances?
 See
National Security Policy of the
United States at:
http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss.html
THEME C
Radical Revisionism and American
Imperialism
In general, revisionists tend to place
most of the blame for the cold war
and subsequent international tensions
upon the United States. According to
them it was America's inordinate (and
unrealistic) fears of Soviet
communism.
THEME C
Radical Revisionism and American
Imperialism
They claim American military strength and
diplomacy are oriented toward protecting
those markets at any costs. This view is
contradicted by examples from Vietman,
Korea and Israel.
Military Policy
From the beginning
of U.S. history the
basic principle has
been to ensure
civilian control of the
military.
Waging Modern War


Interview with General Wesley Clark
http://www.pbs.org/newshour/conversatio
n/jan-june01/clark_06-15.html#
Military power more important after collapse
of Soviet Union and end of Cold War
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Military force used to attack Iraq, defend Kosovo,
maintain order in Bosnia, and occupy Haiti and
Somalia
Several nations have long-range rockets and
weapons of destruction
Many nations feel threatened by neighbors
Russia still has nuclear weapons
THEME A - How Are Military
Decisions Made
The conventional view of national defense
policy making is that it is an example of
majoritarian politics, with cost and
benefits widely distributed. The rival
theory of the military industrial complex
holds that spending for national defense is
the result of client politics.
Majoritarian or Client

Majoritarian view of military
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Almost all Americans benefit, almost all pay
President is the commander-in-chief
Congress plays largely a supportive role
Client view of military


Real beneficiaries of military spending--general,
admirals, big corporations, members of Congress
whose districts get fat defense contracts--but
everyone pays
Military-industrial complex shapes what is spent
National Security Act of 1947

Department of Defense

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Secretary of Defense (civilian, as are secretaries of the
army, navy, and air force)
Joint Chiefs of Staff (military)
Reasons for separate uniformed services

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Fear that unified military will become too powerful
Desire of services to preserve their autonomy
Interservice rivalries intended by Congress to receive
maximum information
1986 defense reorganization plan

Joint Chiefs of Staff
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Joint Staff

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Officers from each service assisting JCS
Since 1986 serves chair; promoted at same rate
The services
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Composed of uniformed head of each service with a chair and
vice chair appointed by the president and confirmed by the
Senate
Chair since 1986 principal military adviser to president
Each service headed by a civilian secretary responsible for
purchasing and public affairs
Senior military officer oversees discipline and training
The chain of command

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Chair of JCS does not have combat command
Uncertainty whether 1986 changes will work
What do we get for our money?
1. Personnel including pensions Pensions hardest to control
2. Big Ticket Items - Cost overruns
"Fly before you Buy"
3. Small ticket items - $435 hammer
4. Readiness - first to get cut
5. Bases
Personnel
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From draft to all-volunteer force in 1973
Volunteer force improved as result of:
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Increases in military pay
Rising civilian unemployment
Changes in military
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More women in military
Ban of women on combat ships lifted in 1993 but
Congress to be consulted if ground combat involved
"Don't ask, don't tell" compromise adopted by Clinton
on homosexuals in military
Big-ticket hardware

Main reasons for cost overruns
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Unpredictability of cost of new items
Contractor incentives to underestimate at first
Military chiefs want best weapons money can buy
"Sole sourcing" of weapons without competitive bids
Holding down budget by "stretching out" production
Latter four factors can be controlled; first cannot
Small-ticket items
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Seemingly outrageous prices come from
allocation of overhead,($435 hammer) small run
of items produced
Others result from "gold-plating" phenomenon
Readiness, favorite area for short-term
budget cutting

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Other cuts would hurt constituents
Cuts here show up quickly in money saved
Bases – Client Politics
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At one time, a lot of bases opened and few
closed
Commission on Base Realignment and Closure
created to take client politics out of base closings
THEME B - Politics and the
Future of Military Spending
See next several charts.
American slowdowns in
productivity, chronic budget
deficits, and increasing foreign
debt have militated against the
continuing rates of military
expansion. The collapse of the
Soviet Union increased the
decline.
Public Sentiment on Defense
Spending, 1960-1998
Updated from The Public Perspective (August/September 1997), 19.
Public Sentiment on Defense
Spending, 1960- 2002
Trends in Military Spending (in
constant dollars) to 2000
Office of the Under Secretary of Defense (Comptroller), “National Defense Budget Estimates for FY 2000.”
Trends in Military Spending (in
constant dollars) to 2002
Welcome to the Department of
Defense
We are America’s ...

Oldest company

Largest company

Busiest company

Most successful
company
How we evolved
1775
1775
1775
1798
War Department (1789)
1947
Dept. of the Army
Department of the Navy (1798)
Dept. of the AF
SecDef position created
Nat’l Mil Estab
DoD created (1949) Dept. of Defense
America’s oldest company
5.3 million strong


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1.4 million active
duty
654,000 civilians
1.2 million Guard
and Reserve
2.0 million retirees
& families
receiving benefits
America’s largest company
Our global infrastructure



Operates from more
than 6,000 locations
Using more than 30
million acres
More than 600,000
buildings and
structures
America’s largest company
Worldwide presence


More than 146 countries
Some 473,881 personnel overseas or afloat
America’s largest company
In comparison ...
Company
DoD
Budget/
Revenue*
Employees*
$371 billion
2,036,000
Wal-Mart
227 billion
1,383,000
ExxonMobil
200 billion
97,900
GM
181 billion
365,000
Ford
160 billion
354,400
America’s largest company
We hire the best
High school diplomas
Masters degrees
Most successful company
Forces
95%
5.6%
Work Force*
79%
4.9%
Who we work for

Chief
Executive
Officer
The President of the United States
Who we work for

Board of
directors
The United States Congress
Who we work for

Stockholders
The American people
Office of the Secretary of Defense
Military Departments
Office,
Chairman
Joint Chiefs
of the JCS
of Staff
Unified Commands
Services train and equip
Department of Defense
Military Departments
U.S. Army
U.S. Air Force
U.S. Navy
U.S. Marine
Corps
Department of
Transportation
U.S. Coast
Guard
Office of the Secretary of Defense
Military Departments
Chairman of the JCS
Unified Commands
Guard & Reserve

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Wartime military
support
Humanitarian
Peacekeeping
Homeland Security
All military departments
Office of the Secretary of Defense
Military Departments
Unified Commands
Chairman of the JCS
Office of the Chairman, JCS
Secretary of Defense
Deputy Secretary of Defense
Chairman, JCS
Vice Chairman, JCS
Chief of Staff, Army
Commandant, Marine Corps
Chief of Naval Operations
Chief of Staff, Air Force
J-1
Manpower and
Personnel
J-2
Intelligence
(DIA)
J-5
Strategic
Plans & Policy
J-6
Command,Control
Communications
Computers
Plans and coordinates
Director,
Joint Staff
J-3
Operations
J-7
Operational
Plans &
Interoperability
J-4
Logistics
J-8
Force Structure,
Resources &
Assessment
Office of the Secretary of Defense
Military Departments
Office,
Chairman
Joint Chiefs
of the JCS
of Staff
Unified Commands
Unified Commanders

Direct link to President & Secretary of Defense

5 Commanders have geographical responsibility

4 Commanders have worldwide responsibility
Secretary of Defense
Deputy Secretary of Defense
European
Command
Central
Command
Space
Command
Southern
Command
Special
Operations
Command
Pacific
Command
Transportation
Command
Strategic
Command
Joint
Forces
Command
What we do

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Warfighting
Humanitarian
Peacekeeping
Evacuation
Homeland Security
Our most important resource

It’s not
tanks,
planes or
ships, it’s
…
people
How the World Has Changed – World’s 5
Largest Urban Areas (million population)
1000
Cordova
.45
Kaifeng (China)
.40
Constantinople (Istanbul)
.30
Angkor
.20
Kyoto
.18
How the World Has Changed – World’s 5
Largest Urban Areas (million population)
1800
Peking (Beijing)
1.1
London
.86
Canton
.80
Edo (Tokyo)
.69
Constantinople (Istanbul)
.57
How the World Has Changed – World’s 5
Largest Urban Areas (million population)
1900
London
6.5
New York
4.2
Paris
3.3
Berlin
2.7
Chicago
1.7
How the World Has Changed – World’s 5
Largest Urban Areas (million population)
2000
Tokyo
26.5
Sao Paulo
18.3
Mexico City
18.3
New York
16.8
Mumbai (Bombay)
16.5
David Gergen
UNO ABC Breakfast
October 2003

Today, the United States represents 5% of
the world’s population. It produces 25%
of the world’s gross domestic product
(GDP). We are probably the greatest
world power since Rome. We that power
goes the responsibility of stewardship.
Part of stewardship is listening to the rest
of the world.
For more information about this topic,
link to the Metropolitan Community
College Political Science Web Site
http://socsci.mccneb.edu/pos/polsc
main.htm
http://www.state.gov
http://www.dod.gov/
SELF TEST