BHS 499-07
Memory and Amnesia
Episodic Long-Term
Memory
Episodic Memories

Episodic memories are tied to specific
events.
• Amalgams of different kinds of information.

Serial position curves are also seen with
episodic memories:
• Primacy and recency effects have different
•
explanations than with STM
First & last events more distinctive, less
susceptible to interference
Levels of Representation

Episodic info is remembered at three
levels of representation:
• Surface form – the exact wording of a
•
•
sentence.
Textbase – an abstract representation of the
meaning of a sentence.
Mental model – a mental simulation of the
described events.
Cueing

Memory cues improve retrieval -- long-term
memory is content-addressable, not just
available based on time of storage..
•
•

New experiences prompt the retrieval of appropriate
memories.
The info in the cues is also in the memory traces.
Types of cues:
•
•
Feature cues – components of the memory itself.
Context cues – related to the environment.
Types of Contexts

Linguistic – the other bits of language
occurring at the time a specific piece of
info was encoded.
• Paired associate learning


External context – environmental cues
Internal context – physiological state,
emotions, thoughts in time.
Context Effects

Encoding specificity – recall is best when the
context is most similar to what it was during
learning.
•


Studying in many different locations adds to context
independence & stronger learning.
State-dependent memory – refers to both
internal and external states.
Mood-congruent memory – may include other
forms of context effects.
Transfer Appropriate Processing


Memory is better when the same
cognitive processes are using during
learning and in recall.
Deep processing affects explicit recall
more whereas shallow processing
affects implicit memory processes more.
• Study rhymes when the test will be about
rhymes.
Irrelevant Memories


Interference – occurs when there is
competition among memory traces.
Negative transfer – prior knowledge
impedes new learning.
• The amount of interference depends on the
similarity of the information.

Proactive and retroactive interference –
learning multiple lists.
Associative Interference

The more associations there are to a
memory, the greater the interference and
the more difficult the recall.
• Fan effect -- the more you know the harder it
•

is to learn.
This should prevent more learning but doesn’t
Chunking of related info prevents
associative interference because one
single trace is involved.
Inhibition


Interference is controlled by inhibitory
processes.
Part-set cueing – poorer memory can occur
when cues are given because the cue disrupts
retrieval processes.
•

A form of blocking of associated items to cue.
Directed forgetting – telling people to forget
ones reduces interference.
•
Just as if they had never seen the to-be-forgotten
items
More Inhibition

Negative priming – the decreased
availability of memories that were
recently inhibited.
• The opposite of normal priming.
• Retrieval-induced inhibition – remembering
causes forgetting.

Repeated practice – things associated
with what was recently remembered are
also inhibited with repeated recall.
Repetition and Practice

Repetition effect – the more someone is
exposed to info, the more likely it will be
remembered.
• How info is practiced is very important.

Distributed practice is more effective
than massed practice (one long
session).
Explanations



Deficient processing – more neurological
consolidation occurs with distributed
sessions compared to massed ones.
Encoding variability – multiple sessions
provide more distinct contexts aiding
recall via more retrieval pathways.
Dual process – both deficient processing
and encoding variability are at work.
Overlearning and Permastore


Overlearning occurs with repeated
practice – strengthens memory traces
with increased resistence to forgetting.
Permastore – whatever remains in your
memory after 3 years is permanent and
will remain a lifetime.
• Some things do not go into permastore
because they are isolated and not linked to
other knowledge (e.g., math, landmarks).
Organization & Distinctiveness

Episodic memory is improved by
organization of material to be learned.
• Even when not given a structure, people
impose one themselves.

Distinctiveness – memory is better for
items that are distinct or novel
• Von Restorff effect – items that don’t belong
• Bizarre imagery – use selectively.
Relational vs Item-Specific
Processing

Organization emphasizes similarity –
relational processing that stresses what
items have in common.
• Works by creating a retrieval plan.

Bizarreness emphasizes difference –
item-specific processing that stresses
distinctness.
• Works by reducing interference.
Material Appropriate Processing


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The type of learning technique should
supplement or enhance what exists in
the type of material to be learned.
For narrative text that is already
relational, use an item-specific
(bizarreness) approach.
For facts that have little relation, use a
relational, organizational approach.