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Chapter 9
Memory
I.
Stages of Memory
A. Processes
1. encoding
2. storage
3. retrieval
B. Memory Stores
1. sensory register
2. short-term memory (STM)
3. long-term memory (LTM)
C. Sensory memory
1. information in through senses
2. icons – visual memories
3. echoic – auditory memories
4. held until transferred to STM
or lost
D. Memory organization
1. Semantic – general
information (declarative)
2. Episodic – autobiographical;
personal
3. Procedural - routines
II. Short-term memory
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A. How things go into STM
1. selective attention – what is
attended; what is ignored
2. working memory – STM used
to solve problems or for
thinking
 computer analogy
3. interruption and interference
4. Magic # = 7
B. Chunking – recoding information
into groups to increase memory
capacity
C. Rehearsal
1. STM only 20 sec.
2. Improved with repetition
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III. Long-term memory
A. Capacity
1. limitless
2. the more you know, the easier
it is to remember related
things
B. Permanence
1. indefinite time limit
2. most things must be used
repeatedly to become
permanent
3. permastore – memories that
become permanent without
much effort
C. Constructing memories
1. reconstructive memory
a. accuracy
b. perception
c. closure
2. eyewitness testimony
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IV. Measuring Memory
A. Recognition
1. able to choose correct
answer from a field
2. always superior to recall
B. Recall – memory without cues
1. serial position effect – items
at the beginning and the end
of a list are best remembered
2. primacy – items at the
beginning of a list
remembered
3. recency – items at the end of a
list remembered
C. Relearning – occurs at a much
faster rate than original learning
D. Eidetic memory – photographic
memory; everything
remembered that is seen
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V. Forgetting
A. Ebbinghaus: nonsense syllables
B. Encoding failure
C. Decay
D. Cue-dependent memory
1. cues may aid in recall
2. state-dependent learning
a. things learned in ASC best
recalled in same state
b. depression or other
moods
E. Interference
1. retroactive interference – new
learning interferes with old
knowledge
 Sleep
2. proactive interference – prior
learning interferes with
learning new information
 the more similar the info, the
more interference
 learning something wrong
 old dog – new tricks
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F. Repression or motivated
forgetting
G. Flashbulb memory
 Vivid, but not necessarily
accurate
VI. Memory Formation
A. Amnesia
1. retrograde amnesia – loss of
memory of events preceding
accident
2. anterograde amnesia – loss of
memory of events after
accident
3. recent memories more easily
disrupted than older
memories
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VII.
Improving Memory
1. feedback – knowledge of
results
2. recitation – going over info out
loud
3. rehearsal – repeating,
paraphrasing and
summarizing
4. selection – choose only what
is most important
5. organization – re-order,
chunk, make stories,
associate
6. whole vs part learning – study
largest meaningful amount of
info
7. serial position – study the
middle
8. cues – associate with other
information
a. key words
b. method of loci
c. imagery
d. mnemonics
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9. overlearning – once you think
you know it, study it some
more
10. spaced practice – rest in
between study sessions
11. sleep – decreases
interference
12. review – do not go on to new
info
13. strategy for recall