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Sex and Survival
Anita Yen
Sheridan College
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Table of Contents
Abstract ...........................................................................................................................................3
Sex and Survival .............................................................................................................................4
Hermaphrodites................................................................................................................................4
Sea Slugs..............................................................................................................................5
Flatworms............................................................................................................................5
Female Dominance..........................................................................................................................6
Mammals.............................................................................................................................6
Male Devotion to Females...................................................................................................7
Sexual Suicide......................................................................................................................8
Male Gender Inequity and Exploitation...............................................................................8
Equality............................................................................................................................................9
Survival................................................................................................................................9
Procreation.........................................................................................................................10
Conclusions....................................................................................................................................11
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Abstract
This report describes the behaviour and roles of males and females of different species. The
report proves that they all share the same basic purpose in their lifetimes, and that is to procreate
and survive. The need for survival and copulation are so intense that some species must go to
extreme measures to fulfill these needs.
This report views the basic physiological need through an examination of the lifestyles of
hermaphrodites, female dominant species, and equally dominant species.
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Sex and Survival
Male and female roles have always been stereotyped in a certain way in our society.
Whether it is women staying in the kitchen or men working outdoors, a certain boundary exists
to indicate where the limits of sex-based behaviour are appropriate. The only reason for this
boundary, however, is because humans have been so successful at surviving that they are able to
strive for other needs. According to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Figure 1), survival is the first
need humans must fulfill in order to concern themselves with more profound needs such as
safety and love and even social statements dictating propriety. (Cherry, n.d.).
Approximately 8.7 million (Black, 2011) wildlife species have been identified so far on
Earth. However, this is only the beginning of millions of more discoveries. Researchers have
identified that only 14% of the animal kingdom has been discovered, leaving 86% of the wildlife
on Earth still a mystery (Black, 2011). However, based on the millions of species already
identified, animals show a clear understanding that procreation and survival are the most
important factors in the animal kingdom. And even though the behaviour may differ from
species to species, their ultimate goals remain the same: to survive and procreate.
This report shows that the basic physiological needs are shared among hermaphrodites,
female dominant species, and equally dominant species.
Hermaphrodites
Hermaphrodites are species where one individual houses both functional male and female
genitals. With such physiology, they not only must endure the birthing process but also bear the
responsibility of insemination. However, this does not mean that all hermaphrodites display the
same behaviour, especially their demeanor towards copulation.
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Sea Slugs. Hermaphrodites are not as rare as one would think; in fact, a vast number of
hermaphrodites live underwater. An example of a hermaphroditic marine animal would be the
sea slug (Figure 2). They are able to choose which sex to become when copulating.
The twenty minutes of their mating procedure is actually more dangerous than one would
think because the penis is structured to have pointy spines and hooks to anchor its place in the
female genital tract. Around four to five hooks are located on its base and approximately twenty
to thirty sharp spines on its tip (Harmon, 2012). Undoubtedly, this can cause tissue ruptures and
other wounds in the female organs (Harmon, 2012). Even though researchers found that the male
reproductive organs temporarily damage the female’s genital tract, over 50% of sea slugs
observed still choose to have reciprocal copulation. That is, each sea slug assumes the role of
both sexes, to simultaneously receive and inject sperm. This indicates that the sea slugs do not
preferentially choose to be males to avoid copulation-induced injuries as a female.
Although it is still unclear as to why these sea creatures choose to play the part of the
female, some researchers suggest that choosing to be female may have its benefits, such as
excess nutrients from the injected sperm as well as the stimulation of egg production from
multiple sperm donors (Harmon, 2012). Despite the high risk of reproductive organ damage, the
sea slugs continue to reproduce because their survival as a species depends on it.
Flatworms. Another type of hermaphroditic marine creature is the flatworm. Like the sea
slug, flatworms also contain the male and female genital organs, though their approach towards
mating is very different (Figure 3). Instead of the reciprocal copulation method or even
cooperating to choose to be one of the two sexes, flatworms use “penis fencing” (Newman,
2009). Both flatworms start off as being male, each thrusting out a pair of penises. A competition
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ensues to see which is able to successfully transfer its sperm first (Newman, 2009). Furthermore,
since sperm can be absorbed anywhere on the flatworm’s skin, the penis is often repeatedly
stabbing the opponent to ensure successful injection of sperm (Newman & Cannon in
Wordpress, para. 6), consequently “leaving gaping holes in the flatworm” that receives the sperm
(Newman, 2009).
As Leslie Newman, Ph.D. in Zoology, so eloquently says, “sex is more like war than love.”
Flatworms go through a very painful and dangerous mating experience. Regardless, it is clear
that to this specimen, the skin damage is well worth the repopulation of the flatworms (Newman,
2009).
Female Dominance
Mammals. A majority of mammals are known to be male dominant (Deb, 2010); however,
there are always exceptions to this rule. The spotted hyenas are actually known to be a femaledominant species. Not only are they 10% larger and more aggressive than males (DeLene
Beeland, 2009), but they also mimic the male reproductive organs (Figure 4). The female spotted
hyenas have what are called pseudopenises. Pseudopenises are functional in that urination,
copulation, and birthing are all performed through this organ. In fact, for a period of time,
spotted hyenas were even believed to be hermaphrodites because of male-like genitalia on the
females (Shaw, 2012). However, because the pseudopenis lacks the actual function of
insemination, it is clear that they only mimic male genitals.
Scientists are not entirely sure of the reason for the extra genitals. A very plausible
hypothesis is that exposure to an excess amount of androgens, which are hormones that make the
hyena more aggressive, can induce physiological change. Even though increased androgens can
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have advantages declaring dominance, the physical effect can be disadvantageous for both the
mother and her offspring. Studies have shown that 10% of mother hyenas die while giving birth
(DeLene Beeland, 2009), and 11 out of 18 cubs turn out stillborn (Henanhan, 1995) due to
suffocation in the abnormally long birth canal of the pseudopenis (DeLene Beeland, 2009).
Erections experienced by males and females are social indicators for submission. In fact,
females and males act upon this type of social greeting towards other dominant females (DeLene
Beeland, 2009). Those who are dominant in the clans are more likely to survive longer because
of their position in the hierarchy.
Male Devotion to Females. Some creatures in the animal kingdom live for the sole
purpose of procreating. According to Wayne P. Armstrong, the author of an online textbook of
natural history, there are two types of male devotion to females: sexual suicide, and male gender
inequity and exploitation.
Sexual suicide occurs when a male leads a “normal functioning life until its moment to
mate” (Armstrong, 2009), then dies during or immediately after copulation, or in extreme cases,
serves as a post-copulation meal for the female (Armstrong, 2009).
As for the male gender inequity and exploitation type, not only is the creature’s life
experience “limited” (Armstrong, 2009), but the anatomy of the males lack the organs to survive
on its own. His purpose is to find a female to impregnate. Even then the male specimen lives as a
parasite, feeding off the female’s body and/or dying soon after insemination.
Males in both types of male devotion exhibit similar characteristics: they are always
smaller, rendering the females more dominant both physically and socially (Armstrong, 2009).
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Sexual Suicide. An example of sexual suicide is the male honeybee, also known as the
drone. The hive consists only of female workers and one queen. Although there are “a couple
hundred” (National Geographic, n.d.) male honeybees born in the hive, by winter, the drones are
no longer welcome. Since the drones do not work or reproduce, the harsh conditions force the
female workers to save space and conserve supplements to the other honeybees that actually
contribute to the hive (National Geographic, n.d.).
After leaving the hive, the male honeybees’ purpose is to mate with a female and pass on
their sperm. Intercourse occurs in midair and the drones simply die afterward (Figure 5). In fact,
Debbie Hadley, a naturalist, explains that as soon as the drone inserts his penis, he “ejaculates
with such explosive force that the tip of his penis ruptures, and is left behind inside the queen.”
Furthermore, since the queen mates with dozens of other drones for the next generation of the
hive, drones are often found “dead on the ground, trailing the queen” (Hadley, 2012) who slowly
accumulates future workers for her hive (Hadley, 2012).
Male Gender Inequity and Exploitation
An example of this type of male devotion is the anglerfish (Figure 6). The majority of
anglerfish live at the bottom of the Atlantic and Antarctic oceans (National Geographic, n.d.)
where it is completely dark. In fact, it is so dark and vastly deep that it is named one of the “most
inhospitable habitats on Earth” (National Geographic, n.d.). These carnivores, however, thrive in
the darkness by using their bioluminescent rod to attract prey (Armstrong, 2009).
As the male anglerfish only has one purpose, to inseminate the female, it lacks vital organs
and physical traits that allow it to survive on its own. For example, the male body lacks the
bioluminescent rod and even a digestive tract (Education Foundation, 1996). Therefore, once a
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female is found, the male bites the female body with its sharp teeth and their bodies become one.
Not only do their skin and bloodstream connect (National Geographic, n.d.), but the male begins
to degenerate “into essentially a pair of sperm-producing testicles” (Armstrong, 2009).
Furthermore, since male anglerfish are generally two and a half inches long (Education
Foundation, 1996), and the females can grow up to 47 inches long (Education Foundation, 1996),
females usually have six or more males latched onto their bodies (National Geographic, n.d.).
This helps with procreation since the anglerfish is able to have sperm from multiple donors and
keep repopulating the vast, deep sea.
Equality
Survival. Unlike other species, such as the honeybees that are female dominant, some
creatures play female and male roles equally. Termites are an example. These social insects live
in colonies and work under a “caste system” (Meyer, 2005). Basically, each group has its own
specific duty in the colony (Figure 8). The largest group consists of the workers. They are young
female and male offspring that maintain the colony by “repairing and cleaning the nest as well as
gathering food and water” (Meyer, 2005). They are also responsible for taking care of all the
other caste group members.
The soldier caste members are those who guard and protect the nest. Although the worker
caste and the soldier caste consist of both females and males, they are all infertile. The only
exceptions are the “alates” who fall under the worker caste group. These special individuals are
fertile and fly out once a year, only to remove their wings as soon as they land and find an area to
begin their own family fortress (The Kitchen Sisters, 2011). Finally, the reproductive caste
consists of the king and queen, who gave birth to the whole colony (Meyer, 2005).
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Furthermore, not only are the sex roles equal, the defensive roles are also distributed
among those who were not born soldiers (i.e., workers). As the workers get older, their
mandibles begin to wear down. And as this occurs, blue stripes on their back begin to appear
(Figure 9), acting as an “expiry date” (Timmer, 2012). The more concentrated the blue toxic
substance appears, the more likely the termite will explode upon prodding. This act of self
exploding is their final self defense when threatened by a predator and may even help the colony
to have more time to escape to safer grounds (Timmer, 2012).
Procreation
Unlike anglerfish with multiple mates, termites procreate with only one mate. After the
queen encounters a male termite, they dig a hole to live in and begin their mound—a heap of soil
that protrudes from the ground and can be constructed up to 7.5 metres tall (Anitei, 2007)—by
copulating. One egg is produced every three seconds (The Kitchen Sisters, 2011) and the
offspring begin to construct the mound. For fifteen years this continues, constantly augmenting
their nest. Once the queen starts giving birth she grows from the “size of a dime to the size of
one’s finger” (The Kitchen Sisters, 2011). And still the king stands by her side, up until she is
“licked to her death [by the offspring], drawing the fluids and fats out of her body” (The Kitchen
Sisters, 2011). Eventually the offspring leave and the next generations of those termites are
carried on through the alates that fly out every year (The Kitchen Sisters, 2011).
This shows that the termites live in a constant cycle with two goals in mind: to survive and
to produce offspring.
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Conclusions
Even though there is only 14% of wildlife discovered on Earth, it should be no coincidence
that “we’re really all the same” (Zoboomafoo & The Kratt Brothers, n.d.). The instinct to survive
and pass on genes is the basic need of every creature. Some even sacrifice themselves for their
future generations to survive. The animal kingdom is an extraordinary and perplexing part of the
world that we are still trying to unveil and discover. Undoubtedly, those creatures newly
discovered have the same goals as those thriving: to live and support their own kin in the present.
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References
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Kid question: Why are daddies bigger than mummies? Science@home. Retrieved from
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Figure 1: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Chart
Source: Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved
from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maslow%27s_Hierarchy_of
_Needs.svg
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Figure 2: Hermaphroditic sea slugs mating simultaneously
Source: Lange, R., Gerlach, T., Beninde, J., Werminghausen, J.,
Reichel, V., et al/PLoS ONE; Retrieved from
http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn22208-slugsbenefit-from-getting-stabbed-while-having-sex.html
0
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Figure 3: Two hermaphroditic flatworms perform penis
fencing.
Source: Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flatworm_sex.png
0
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Figure 4: The reproductive system of the female hyena
Source: Christine Drea. Retrieved from
http://scientistatwork.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/06/29/male-orfemale-good-question/
0
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Figure 5: Queen Bee mating while flying
Source: Eric Tourneret. Retrieved from
http://www.thehoneygatherers.com/html/photolibrary2.html
0
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Figure 6: Female anglerfish
Source: Bruce Robison/Corbis. Retrieved
from
http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/an
imals/fish/anglerfish/
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Figure 7: Female and male anglerfish mating
Source: Blurtit. Retrieved from
http://wildlife.blurtit.com/q5760508.html
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Figure 8: Figures of the termite worker, soldier, and
queen
Source: All Natural Pest Elimination. Retrieved from
http://www.nobuggy.com/oregon_termites.html
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Figure 9: A younger worker termite on the left and an
older worker termite on the right, shown by the
blue toxic band
Source: Robert Hanus. .Retrieved from
http://www.thescientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/32401/title
/Termite-Kamikazes/
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Figure 10: Termite workers surrounding the queen
termite
Source: Hans D. Dossenbach/Ardea London.
Retrieved from
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/media/14753/
Queen-termite-surrounded-by-workers