SEX AND SURVIVAL 1 Sex and Survival Anita Yen Sheridan College SEX AND SURVIVAL 2 Table of Contents Abstract ...........................................................................................................................................3 Sex and Survival .............................................................................................................................4 Hermaphrodites................................................................................................................................4 Sea Slugs..............................................................................................................................5 Flatworms............................................................................................................................5 Female Dominance..........................................................................................................................6 Mammals.............................................................................................................................6 Male Devotion to Females...................................................................................................7 Sexual Suicide......................................................................................................................8 Male Gender Inequity and Exploitation...............................................................................8 Equality............................................................................................................................................9 Survival................................................................................................................................9 Procreation.........................................................................................................................10 Conclusions....................................................................................................................................11 SEX AND SURVIVAL 3 Abstract This report describes the behaviour and roles of males and females of different species. The report proves that they all share the same basic purpose in their lifetimes, and that is to procreate and survive. The need for survival and copulation are so intense that some species must go to extreme measures to fulfill these needs. This report views the basic physiological need through an examination of the lifestyles of hermaphrodites, female dominant species, and equally dominant species. SEX AND SURVIVAL 4 Sex and Survival Male and female roles have always been stereotyped in a certain way in our society. Whether it is women staying in the kitchen or men working outdoors, a certain boundary exists to indicate where the limits of sex-based behaviour are appropriate. The only reason for this boundary, however, is because humans have been so successful at surviving that they are able to strive for other needs. According to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Figure 1), survival is the first need humans must fulfill in order to concern themselves with more profound needs such as safety and love and even social statements dictating propriety. (Cherry, n.d.). Approximately 8.7 million (Black, 2011) wildlife species have been identified so far on Earth. However, this is only the beginning of millions of more discoveries. Researchers have identified that only 14% of the animal kingdom has been discovered, leaving 86% of the wildlife on Earth still a mystery (Black, 2011). However, based on the millions of species already identified, animals show a clear understanding that procreation and survival are the most important factors in the animal kingdom. And even though the behaviour may differ from species to species, their ultimate goals remain the same: to survive and procreate. This report shows that the basic physiological needs are shared among hermaphrodites, female dominant species, and equally dominant species. Hermaphrodites Hermaphrodites are species where one individual houses both functional male and female genitals. With such physiology, they not only must endure the birthing process but also bear the responsibility of insemination. However, this does not mean that all hermaphrodites display the same behaviour, especially their demeanor towards copulation. SEX AND SURVIVAL 5 Sea Slugs. Hermaphrodites are not as rare as one would think; in fact, a vast number of hermaphrodites live underwater. An example of a hermaphroditic marine animal would be the sea slug (Figure 2). They are able to choose which sex to become when copulating. The twenty minutes of their mating procedure is actually more dangerous than one would think because the penis is structured to have pointy spines and hooks to anchor its place in the female genital tract. Around four to five hooks are located on its base and approximately twenty to thirty sharp spines on its tip (Harmon, 2012). Undoubtedly, this can cause tissue ruptures and other wounds in the female organs (Harmon, 2012). Even though researchers found that the male reproductive organs temporarily damage the female’s genital tract, over 50% of sea slugs observed still choose to have reciprocal copulation. That is, each sea slug assumes the role of both sexes, to simultaneously receive and inject sperm. This indicates that the sea slugs do not preferentially choose to be males to avoid copulation-induced injuries as a female. Although it is still unclear as to why these sea creatures choose to play the part of the female, some researchers suggest that choosing to be female may have its benefits, such as excess nutrients from the injected sperm as well as the stimulation of egg production from multiple sperm donors (Harmon, 2012). Despite the high risk of reproductive organ damage, the sea slugs continue to reproduce because their survival as a species depends on it. Flatworms. Another type of hermaphroditic marine creature is the flatworm. Like the sea slug, flatworms also contain the male and female genital organs, though their approach towards mating is very different (Figure 3). Instead of the reciprocal copulation method or even cooperating to choose to be one of the two sexes, flatworms use “penis fencing” (Newman, 2009). Both flatworms start off as being male, each thrusting out a pair of penises. A competition SEX AND SURVIVAL 6 ensues to see which is able to successfully transfer its sperm first (Newman, 2009). Furthermore, since sperm can be absorbed anywhere on the flatworm’s skin, the penis is often repeatedly stabbing the opponent to ensure successful injection of sperm (Newman & Cannon in Wordpress, para. 6), consequently “leaving gaping holes in the flatworm” that receives the sperm (Newman, 2009). As Leslie Newman, Ph.D. in Zoology, so eloquently says, “sex is more like war than love.” Flatworms go through a very painful and dangerous mating experience. Regardless, it is clear that to this specimen, the skin damage is well worth the repopulation of the flatworms (Newman, 2009). Female Dominance Mammals. A majority of mammals are known to be male dominant (Deb, 2010); however, there are always exceptions to this rule. The spotted hyenas are actually known to be a femaledominant species. Not only are they 10% larger and more aggressive than males (DeLene Beeland, 2009), but they also mimic the male reproductive organs (Figure 4). The female spotted hyenas have what are called pseudopenises. Pseudopenises are functional in that urination, copulation, and birthing are all performed through this organ. In fact, for a period of time, spotted hyenas were even believed to be hermaphrodites because of male-like genitalia on the females (Shaw, 2012). However, because the pseudopenis lacks the actual function of insemination, it is clear that they only mimic male genitals. Scientists are not entirely sure of the reason for the extra genitals. A very plausible hypothesis is that exposure to an excess amount of androgens, which are hormones that make the hyena more aggressive, can induce physiological change. Even though increased androgens can SEX AND SURVIVAL 7 have advantages declaring dominance, the physical effect can be disadvantageous for both the mother and her offspring. Studies have shown that 10% of mother hyenas die while giving birth (DeLene Beeland, 2009), and 11 out of 18 cubs turn out stillborn (Henanhan, 1995) due to suffocation in the abnormally long birth canal of the pseudopenis (DeLene Beeland, 2009). Erections experienced by males and females are social indicators for submission. In fact, females and males act upon this type of social greeting towards other dominant females (DeLene Beeland, 2009). Those who are dominant in the clans are more likely to survive longer because of their position in the hierarchy. Male Devotion to Females. Some creatures in the animal kingdom live for the sole purpose of procreating. According to Wayne P. Armstrong, the author of an online textbook of natural history, there are two types of male devotion to females: sexual suicide, and male gender inequity and exploitation. Sexual suicide occurs when a male leads a “normal functioning life until its moment to mate” (Armstrong, 2009), then dies during or immediately after copulation, or in extreme cases, serves as a post-copulation meal for the female (Armstrong, 2009). As for the male gender inequity and exploitation type, not only is the creature’s life experience “limited” (Armstrong, 2009), but the anatomy of the males lack the organs to survive on its own. His purpose is to find a female to impregnate. Even then the male specimen lives as a parasite, feeding off the female’s body and/or dying soon after insemination. Males in both types of male devotion exhibit similar characteristics: they are always smaller, rendering the females more dominant both physically and socially (Armstrong, 2009). SEX AND SURVIVAL 8 Sexual Suicide. An example of sexual suicide is the male honeybee, also known as the drone. The hive consists only of female workers and one queen. Although there are “a couple hundred” (National Geographic, n.d.) male honeybees born in the hive, by winter, the drones are no longer welcome. Since the drones do not work or reproduce, the harsh conditions force the female workers to save space and conserve supplements to the other honeybees that actually contribute to the hive (National Geographic, n.d.). After leaving the hive, the male honeybees’ purpose is to mate with a female and pass on their sperm. Intercourse occurs in midair and the drones simply die afterward (Figure 5). In fact, Debbie Hadley, a naturalist, explains that as soon as the drone inserts his penis, he “ejaculates with such explosive force that the tip of his penis ruptures, and is left behind inside the queen.” Furthermore, since the queen mates with dozens of other drones for the next generation of the hive, drones are often found “dead on the ground, trailing the queen” (Hadley, 2012) who slowly accumulates future workers for her hive (Hadley, 2012). Male Gender Inequity and Exploitation An example of this type of male devotion is the anglerfish (Figure 6). The majority of anglerfish live at the bottom of the Atlantic and Antarctic oceans (National Geographic, n.d.) where it is completely dark. In fact, it is so dark and vastly deep that it is named one of the “most inhospitable habitats on Earth” (National Geographic, n.d.). These carnivores, however, thrive in the darkness by using their bioluminescent rod to attract prey (Armstrong, 2009). As the male anglerfish only has one purpose, to inseminate the female, it lacks vital organs and physical traits that allow it to survive on its own. For example, the male body lacks the bioluminescent rod and even a digestive tract (Education Foundation, 1996). Therefore, once a SEX AND SURVIVAL 9 female is found, the male bites the female body with its sharp teeth and their bodies become one. Not only do their skin and bloodstream connect (National Geographic, n.d.), but the male begins to degenerate “into essentially a pair of sperm-producing testicles” (Armstrong, 2009). Furthermore, since male anglerfish are generally two and a half inches long (Education Foundation, 1996), and the females can grow up to 47 inches long (Education Foundation, 1996), females usually have six or more males latched onto their bodies (National Geographic, n.d.). This helps with procreation since the anglerfish is able to have sperm from multiple donors and keep repopulating the vast, deep sea. Equality Survival. Unlike other species, such as the honeybees that are female dominant, some creatures play female and male roles equally. Termites are an example. These social insects live in colonies and work under a “caste system” (Meyer, 2005). Basically, each group has its own specific duty in the colony (Figure 8). The largest group consists of the workers. They are young female and male offspring that maintain the colony by “repairing and cleaning the nest as well as gathering food and water” (Meyer, 2005). They are also responsible for taking care of all the other caste group members. The soldier caste members are those who guard and protect the nest. Although the worker caste and the soldier caste consist of both females and males, they are all infertile. The only exceptions are the “alates” who fall under the worker caste group. These special individuals are fertile and fly out once a year, only to remove their wings as soon as they land and find an area to begin their own family fortress (The Kitchen Sisters, 2011). Finally, the reproductive caste consists of the king and queen, who gave birth to the whole colony (Meyer, 2005). SEX AND SURVIVAL 10 Furthermore, not only are the sex roles equal, the defensive roles are also distributed among those who were not born soldiers (i.e., workers). As the workers get older, their mandibles begin to wear down. And as this occurs, blue stripes on their back begin to appear (Figure 9), acting as an “expiry date” (Timmer, 2012). The more concentrated the blue toxic substance appears, the more likely the termite will explode upon prodding. This act of self exploding is their final self defense when threatened by a predator and may even help the colony to have more time to escape to safer grounds (Timmer, 2012). Procreation Unlike anglerfish with multiple mates, termites procreate with only one mate. After the queen encounters a male termite, they dig a hole to live in and begin their mound—a heap of soil that protrudes from the ground and can be constructed up to 7.5 metres tall (Anitei, 2007)—by copulating. One egg is produced every three seconds (The Kitchen Sisters, 2011) and the offspring begin to construct the mound. For fifteen years this continues, constantly augmenting their nest. Once the queen starts giving birth she grows from the “size of a dime to the size of one’s finger” (The Kitchen Sisters, 2011). And still the king stands by her side, up until she is “licked to her death [by the offspring], drawing the fluids and fats out of her body” (The Kitchen Sisters, 2011). Eventually the offspring leave and the next generations of those termites are carried on through the alates that fly out every year (The Kitchen Sisters, 2011). This shows that the termites live in a constant cycle with two goals in mind: to survive and to produce offspring. SEX AND SURVIVAL 11 Conclusions Even though there is only 14% of wildlife discovered on Earth, it should be no coincidence that “we’re really all the same” (Zoboomafoo & The Kratt Brothers, n.d.). The instinct to survive and pass on genes is the basic need of every creature. Some even sacrifice themselves for their future generations to survive. The animal kingdom is an extraordinary and perplexing part of the world that we are still trying to unveil and discover. Undoubtedly, those creatures newly discovered have the same goals as those thriving: to live and support their own kin in the present. SEX AND SURVIVAL 12 References Anglerfish. National Geographic. Retrieved from http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/fish/anglerfish/ Anitei, S. (2007). The largest natural buildings. Softpedia. Retrieved from http://news.softpedia.com/news/The-Largest-Architectonic-Buildings-in-Nature57816.shtml Armstrong, W.P. (2009). Sexual suicide. Wayne’s Word. Retrieved from http://waynesword.palomar.edu/ww0701.htmBlack, R. (2011). Species count put at 8.7 million. BBC News. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment14616161Carey, B. (2006). The painful realities of hyena sex. LiveScience. Retrieved from http://www.livescience.com/699-painful-realities-hyena-sex.html Cherry, K. (n.d.). Hierarchy of needs. About.com. Retrieved from http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/hierarchyneeds.htm DeLene Beeland, T. (2009). Genital mimicry, social erections and spotted hyenas. Wild Muse. Retrieved from http://sciencetrio.wordpress.com/2009/11/09/genital-mimicry-socialerections-and-spotted-hyenas/ Education Foundation. (1998). Angler Fish. Oracle ThinkQuest. Retrieved from http://library.thinkquest.org/3571/angler.htm Hadley, D. (2012). Honey bee mating. About.com. Retrieved from http://insects.about.com/od/antsbeeswasps/qt/Honey-Bee-Mating.htm Harmon, K. (2012). 50 shades of sea slug sex: It’s stranger than you think. Scientific American. Retrieved from http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/2012/08/24/50-shadesof-sea-slug-sex-its-stranger-than-you-think/ Henahan, S. (1995). Female hyenas and male hormones, a strange combination. Access Excellence. Retrieved from http://www.accessexcellence.org/WN/SUA06/hyena.php Honeybee. National Geographic. Retrieved from http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/bugs/honeybee/ SEX AND SURVIVAL 13 Kid question: Why are daddies bigger than mummies? Science@home. Retrieved from http://science-at-home.org/men-bigger-than-women/ Meyer, J.R. (2005). Termites. Retrieved from http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/tutorial/Social/termites.html Newman, L. The Shape of Life. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/kcet/shapeoflife/explorations/bio_newman.html Shaw, K. (2012). Pregnant males and pseudopenises: Complex sex in the animal kingdom. Arstechnica. Retrieved from http://arstechnica.com/science/2012/09/pregnant-males-andpseudopenises-complex-sex-in-the-animal-kingdom/ TheAwkblog. (Uploader). (2009). Flatworms Penis Fencing!!! [Video Clip]. http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=5fx-YgcP8Gg The Kitchen Sisters. (2011). A termite queen and her ultimate sacrifice. NPR. Retrieved from http://www.npr.org/2011/05/06/136028437/a-termite-queen-and-her-ultimate-sacrifice Timmer, J. (2012). Older worker termites become exploding toxic defenders. Arstechnica. Retrieved from http://arstechnica.com/science/2012/07/older-worker-termites-becomeexploding-toxic-defenders/ Undersea penis fencing! (That got your attention.). WordPress. Retrieved from http://fishileaks.wordpress.com/2010/12/17/undersea-penis-fencing-that-got-yourattention/ Zoboomafoo and the Kratt brothers. (1998). Animal friends. [Audio/lyrics]. Retrieved from http://pbskids.org/zoboo/karaoke/rafriendsong.html SEX AND SURVIVAL 14 Figure 1: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Chart Source: Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maslow%27s_Hierarchy_of _Needs.svg SEX AND SURVIVAL Figure 2: Hermaphroditic sea slugs mating simultaneously Source: Lange, R., Gerlach, T., Beninde, J., Werminghausen, J., Reichel, V., et al/PLoS ONE; Retrieved from http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn22208-slugsbenefit-from-getting-stabbed-while-having-sex.html 0 SEX AND SURVIVAL Figure 3: Two hermaphroditic flatworms perform penis fencing. Source: Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flatworm_sex.png 0 SEX AND SURVIVAL Figure 4: The reproductive system of the female hyena Source: Christine Drea. Retrieved from http://scientistatwork.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/06/29/male-orfemale-good-question/ 0 SEX AND SURVIVAL Figure 5: Queen Bee mating while flying Source: Eric Tourneret. Retrieved from http://www.thehoneygatherers.com/html/photolibrary2.html 0 SEX AND SURVIVAL 0 Figure 6: Female anglerfish Source: Bruce Robison/Corbis. Retrieved from http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/an imals/fish/anglerfish/ SEX AND SURVIVAL 0 Figure 7: Female and male anglerfish mating Source: Blurtit. Retrieved from http://wildlife.blurtit.com/q5760508.html SEX AND SURVIVAL 0 Figure 8: Figures of the termite worker, soldier, and queen Source: All Natural Pest Elimination. Retrieved from http://www.nobuggy.com/oregon_termites.html SEX AND SURVIVAL 0 Figure 9: A younger worker termite on the left and an older worker termite on the right, shown by the blue toxic band Source: Robert Hanus. .Retrieved from http://www.thescientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/32401/title /Termite-Kamikazes/ SEX AND SURVIVAL 1 Figure 10: Termite workers surrounding the queen termite Source: Hans D. Dossenbach/Ardea London. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/media/14753/ Queen-termite-surrounded-by-workers