GNS 106 (PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE)
SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY
*Every human being is endowed with thinking ability
*All human being are thinkers (okponavibo 2002)
PHILOSOPHY: is in built with human nature and his/her thinking faculty
*Man philosophy acquire ways, means to solve Problem existence.
According to (omoregbe 1990), philosophy is the love of wisdom
*it can also be defined as the activity of analysis.
TECHNOLOGICAL DEFINITION OF PHILOSOPHY
Is to find solution and meaningful answer to our daily problem (Nirok 1992)
PHILOSOPHY AND TECHNOLOGY: philosophy of technology is what took place in the olden days,
which gives rise to STONE AGE and invention of fire.
Philosophy of culture: it is the philosophy of life as culture remains totality to human life styles.
Philosophy of science: it is the rationality of man his thinking and reasoning faculty.
*Plato, Aristotle and Aquinas calls philosophy science of science.
Object and scope of philosophy:
Knowledge and wisdom begins with human consciousness. Philosophy does its seeking, searching,
questioning and enquiring for knowledge.
EPISTEMOLOGY: it is the process by which one seeks to know.
LOGIC: it is the reasoning process of philosophy
ETHICS: it is the study of goodness and ills in human actions. It concerned with beauty of nature.
NATURE OF PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY
*it is a problem solving activity .it stimulate by doubt.
*it also enables us to inquire about what happens in the society to arrive to a conclusion or belief.
*it can also be settlement of opinion or articulation.
PHILOSOPHICAL PROBLEMS
*they are general in nature
*fundamental problem
*abstract in nature
APPROACHES TO PHILOSOPHICAL PROBLEMS
CRITICAL THINKING: it regards the reasonable thinking of the society
CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS: human reasoning is impossible without the use of concepts. The concepts
are: knowledge, reality, obligation minds, justices and democracy etc.
RECONSTRUCTION OF IDEAS:
MODEL OF PHILOSOPHERS: it is the scholar who is relentless in searching and daring in thinking
about ideas and solution.
Marshal and Bishop summary of Gns 106 FUTABASE.COM
Page 1
BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
EPISTEMOLOGY: it is the branch of philosophy which is concern with the scope of knowledge. The
word is derived from Greek word EPISTEME which means knowledge LOGOS means theory.*it is
also the study of human knowledge
KNOWLEDGE: is defined as justified true belief (JTB).
SKEPTICISM: it is the school of thought that ought not to claim knowledge unless there is no
possibility of being wrong.
RELATIVISM: is the form of skepticism which denies Objectives, universal knowledge or truth.
Metaphysics: it is derived from Greek word META means after and PHYSIKA means nature.
*it also means search for reality, the nature of reality.
*relationship between metaphysics and epistemology is IDEALISM & MATERIALISM.
*idealism does not deny the existence of material things.
Metaphysical claims:
1. God exist
2. Human action are destined
3. A person is a composite body and mind
ETHICS: it deals with how man should conduct himself in the society or morality of human conduct.
*it is also known as moral philosophy.
NORMATIVE ETHICS: it is the attempt to make normal judgment about particular actions in a view
to determine whether it is right or wrong.
META-ETHICS: is the attempt to examine questions about meaning moral concept.
METHODS IN PHILOSOPHY
SOCRATIC METHOD: it is the oldest method of philosophy named after Socrates a Greek
philosopher. This method applies the act of debate by question & answer.
Deductive method: this method was introduced by Aristotle. In this method conclusion is an
argument.
INDUCTIVE METHOD: this method the truth of the premises does not grantee the truth of the
conclusion.
*conclusion is drawn from the premises which it is believed that is the truth.
EXISTENTIALIST METHOD: this method was credited by the school of thought in philosophy called
existentialism. It means truth is subjective.
ANALYTIC METHOD: this method is advocated by philosophical arguments could be solved by
analysis and clarification of language.
PHENOMENOLOGICAL METHOD: this method involves the intellectual observation of a given
object. It was championed by scholar called Edmund.
SCHOOL OF THOUGTH IN PHILOSOPHY
HEDONISM: is an ethical theory that pleasure is intrinsically good. Bentham Epicums hold that
mental & physical pleasure is good. Hedonist tends to equal pleasure with good
ALTRUISM: is derived from French word ALTRUI
.it means exercise of life and self-devoted to
good of other more particularly to the society. Altruism is ideal vision of life and it is difficult to
practice.it also the true bedrock of morality.
EGOISM: is a moral theory that promotes someone’s greatest goal. JOSEPH BUTLER called it SELFLOVE.
EMOTIVISM: is a moral theory moral statements are not factual statements.
Marshal and Bishop summary of Gns 106 FUTABASE.COM
Page 2
UTILITARIANISM: it holds the morality of an act consist of utility in serving as a means to some end.
It is an ethical view which sees the ultimate standard right.
Utilitarianism is of 3 types: act, general and rule. Read more about it in chapter 5 of the book.
SITUATION ETHICS: it holds that certain actions are intrinsically evil actions and others intrinsically
good irrespective of the circumstance of the action, which means certain actions are evil whenever
and wherever there are performed. This follows that the goodness and badness of an action
depends on the situation in which it is performed. JOSEPH FLETCHER American moralist is the chief
exponent of this ethical view.
EMPIRICISM: this theory holds that all knowledge comes of experience derivable from five sense of
hearing seeing touching smelling feeling and tasting.
RATIONALISM: the theory holds that knowledge is reach through reasoning from first principle
which is self-evident.
*it believes that reasoning alone can lead us to true knowledge.
PRAGMATISM: this theory which state that the truth of a belief is a function of utility i.e extent
that is useful to achieve some particular goals.
REALISM: this theory of knowledge that the world is real as it is presented to us in experience. It is
of two major types: Naïve and scientific realism
NAÏVE REALISM: shows that physical object is real as it appears to sense.
SCIENTIFIC REALISM: shows that the real goes beyond physical object, which includes scientific
facts.
IDEALISM: is a metaphysical theory that holds only mind and its ideas exist.
LOGICAL POSITIVISM: this theory represents a set of philosophical ideas put together by a group of
philosophers known as VINNA CIRCLE.
INDIVIDUALISM: this is a philosophical doctrine that holds individuals have right, property and
freedom which society should protect.
MARXISM: is a social and political theory developed by KARL MARX (1808-1883). It stress
importance of economic conditions to human affairs or propels economic conditions and activities.
PHENOMENALISM: Theory of knowledge that objects are permanent possibilities of sensations.
EXISTENTIALISM: according to this theory man than complex physical or material entity.
THEISM: it affirms the existence of God.
AFRICA PHILOSOPHY
It can be defined as the critical reflection on the Africa and his experience to reality.
WHY DO WE STUDY AFRICA PHILOSOPHY
*it frees us from underground prejudices and superstitious belief.
*it helps to examine our basic belief be it religious, social & culture.
*it helps to appraise our system of value.
*it counsel man to know itself.
BRANCHES & SCOPE
Normative, metaphysical, ideological, scientific, logical and pragmatic.
The Scope Includes
Philosophy of medicine and Medicare ethics
Philosophy of science
Philosophy of languages
Philosophy of act and aesthetics
Philosophy of technology
Marshal and Bishop summary of Gns 106 FUTABASE.COM
Page 3
Philosophy of religion
Philosophy of education
AFRICA LOGIC: is the defined as instrument with which philosophy works. It is the study of ideal
method in techniques of reasoning. Aristotle also defined it as thinking on thinking.
*Africa logic deals with the application of logic of Africa culture.
AFRICA METAPHYSICS: metaphysics is defined as the ultimate principle of reality.
Africa metaphysics is the thinking on reality which is predominantly Africa study of Africa man
thinking about reality.
AFRICA EHTICS: Africa ethics deals with behavior of bad or good and moral obligation.
AFRICA AESTHETICS: it is Africa philosophy of act.it is the study of ideal forms of beauty.
TASK AND CHALLENGES OF AFRICA PHILOSOPHY
*it helps to develop critical mind
*it also creates favorable conditions for shaping societal values
*it does not neglect moral and ethical role of philosophy in life of men and society
*it critically considers the issue of an idea of form of government or social organization *it should
help in study & appreciation of Africa aesthetics.
NATURE OF LOGIC
LOGIC: is a science which as the study of principle for appraising arguments as correct or incorrect
as the primary aim.
NATURE OF ARGUMENT
ARGUMENT: it refers to as quarrel or disagreement. But technically it is one or more proposition
called premise or premises which are offered as evidence for another proposition called
conclusion.
DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT: it involves reasoning that attempt to establish conclusive interferences. In
most cases interference in deductive argument are made from general statements to particular
statements.
Example: All students are matriculated-(general statement)
Dayo is a student. Therefore Dayo is matriculated-(particular statement)
INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT: it involves reasoning that does not attempt to establish conclusive
interferences. According to MORSE(1971), it is possible for all premises of a good inductive
argument to be true and the conclusion to be false. Examples: dayo, a FUTA student is brilliant,
Abubakar, a FUTA student is brilliant, wumi, a FUTA student is brilliant. Therefore, all FUTA
students are brilliant.
VALID ARGUMENT: is valid when it would be unreasonable to believe its premises and no believe
in the conclusion.
INVALID ARGUMENT: is invalid when it is possible to accept the premises and reject the conclusion.
SOUND ARGUMENT: is when an argument is valid and all the premises are true. If the argument is
valid and the premises are false, it said to be unsound.
SYMBOLIC LOGIC: it is concerned syntax rather than semantics.
*symbolic logic is seen as a formal logic which special symbols are introduce to represent
propositions.
NEGATION
Any proposition can be negated just like in our daily conversation
*tilde (~) is a symbolic sign used to stand for negation. If a statement is true , then its negation will
be false and if it is false . The negation will be false.
Marshal and Bishop summary of Gns 106 FUTABASE.COM
Page 4
Truth-functional connectives: it is expression that links two sentences together to form a
compound statement.
CONJUNCTION: it is a compound proposition in which two proposition are joined together with use
of “and” or equivalent.
Example: Ayomide is handsome and Monalisa is beautiful (they are both simple statements). If we
connect the both statement in the word “and” to make it compound statement. Ayomide is
handsome and Monalisa is beautiful.
Illustration statement 1 will be (P) while statement 2 will be (Q) in the table below. T-True, F-False.
P Q
P.Q
T T
T
T F
F
F T
F
F F
F
A conjunction is true when the two conjunct are true but false in other cases.
DISJUNCTION AND ALTERATION: it is a compound proposition by connecting two simple statement
with the word (either, or).
INCLUSIVE DISJUNCTION: it is false when the statement is false but true in all other cases. Example:
Bisola is a philosophy student or Bisola study logic
EXCLUSIVE DISJUNCTION: it is true when the statement is true and false in all other cases.
Illustration below
p
q
PVq(inclusive) PVq(exclusive)
T
T
T
F
T
F
T
T
F
T
T
T
F
F
F
F
THE CONDITIONAL: it is a compound proposition in which word (if, then) connect the proposition
together. The symbolic sign used to represent conditional is called horseshoe (“ ”,).
*conditional is false when the antecedent is true vice-versa.
P
Q P Q
T
T T
T
F F
F
T T
F
F T
BI CONDITIONAL: is a compound proposition in which the word if and only are used to join the
component proposition together.
*bi conditional is true if the component is alike.
P Q
P Q
T T
T
T F
F
F T
F
F F
T
Marshal and Bishop summary of Gns 106 FUTABASE.COM
Page 5
INTERFERENCE: this is the process which one statement or proposition accepted as the starting
point of the process.
Laws of interference: modus ponens, modus tollens, disjunctive syllogism, constructive dilemma,
destructive dilemma, hypothetical syllogism, conduction, addition.
Laws of thoughts: is regarded as the basic principle of thinking process which constitutes the
starting point of reasoning.
Three (3) laws of thought
Law of identity: it states that if a proposition is true then it is true.
Law of contradiction: it state that no proposition can be true and can be false at the same time.
Law of excluded middle: it states that any proposition must either be true or false at the same
time.
How (3) laws of thought were been contradicted
The law of identity does not make provision for change
The law of contradiction was criticized that no contradiction statement may be true at the same
time. E.g. the statement it is raining and it is not raining can both be true depending on the time
and place.
The law of excluded middle has been objected that it rules out the possibility of middle course.
FALLACIES AND THEIR LATIN NAMES
FALLACIES: it is an error in reasoning or in interference.
*a fallacy is logically defective argument that is capable of misleading people into thinking that is
logically correct.
FORMAL FALLACIES: there is (non sequitur) i.e. it does not follow.
FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE (ignoratio elenchi): ignorance of what is required to establish or refute a
conclusion.
APPEAL TO FALSE (argumentum ad baculum): this is an argument that fallacies employ a threat as
a logical and sufficient evidence for believing a conclusion. Example: the book is your compass for
this course, if you fail to buy one, you can’t pass the course.
APPEAL FROM IGNORANCE (argumentum ad ignorantum): it holds that a proposition is true simply
because it has not been proved wrong or vice-versa. Example: the argument that God exist or
cannot exist may be amount of ignorance because no one has come up with the evidence that he
does or does not.
APPEAL TO PITY (argumentum ad miserconrdian): this when an irrelevant appeal to the pitiable
circumstances of an agent is accepted. Example: I justify good grade in this course because I am the
course representative.
APPEAL OF AUTHORITY (argumentum ad verecumdiam): it is when one appeals to the testimony of
others whom we think are in better position than ourselves to ascertain the evidence of some
proposition.
APPEAL TO POPULAR PREJUDICE (argumentum ad populum): this occurs whenever anyone appeals
to the opinions of the multitude to establish a conclusion it is based on emotion rather than logical
relation between proposition, it is used mostly in advertisement and politics. Example: this product
is used by all; therefore you must get your own.
ATTACKING THE PERSON (argumentum ad hominem): this occurs when the person presenting the
argument is attacked instead of provision or disapproving the conclusion of an argument. It is of
two (2) types Abusive and Circumstantial
ABUSIVE: when the person is made on the character of the person presenting the argument.
Marshal and Bishop summary of Gns 106 FUTABASE.COM
Page 6
FUTABASE.COM
CIRCUMSTANTIAL: when the person circumstances make it possible for him to be sincere or tell
truth. Example: the cause of Acquired Immune Defiency Syndrome (AIDS) is discovered by Apostle
Bongo. The cause should be rejected because Bongo is a member of scripture union.
PART TWO
ISSUES IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Philosophy of science and the limitation of scientific method of knowledge
Philosophy of science: it is a branch of philosophy that is concerned with critical examination of
scientific concept, theories, methods and results.
What is science: science is derived from a Latin word called SCIENTIA means KNOWLEDGE.
*science is the knowledge organized or arranged in an orderly manner which is obtain through
observation and experiment.
Objective of science
*science is to provide reasonable explanation and prediction
*it improves the use of mechanism and instrument for man use.
Branches of science
Formal science: which includes mathematics, geometry and statistics? The discipline use rule,
theory to arrive conclusion.
Empirical science: which includes chemistry, biology and physics? The discipline use experiment
and observation to arrive at conclusion.
Social science: it includes economics, political science and government. This discipline conducts
systematic studies of human society and institution.
Human science: it includes poetry, drama, languages, art, history etc. this discipline is only
concerned with the study of human culture.
Scientific Theory: it is a system of rules, procedures and assumption used to produce result.
Scientific methods: this is the process to arrive at the theories and laws.
* Scientific methods use to derive conclusion are: observation, experimentation, statistical and
sampling methods.
Step to Scientific research
*identifying and starting problems
*collection of data
*data are organized/conjecture
*hypothesis
*testing, proofing
*theory construction/final state.
Limitation of Scientific methods
*science is dependent on man sense organ
*science cannot prescribe moral and values
*One method is capable of finding solution
*it gives valuable information but no single classification
Understanding philosophy, science, technology and culture
Culture permeate all aspect of human life and living
*lifestyle of humanity is called culture
*science operates in culture with cultural element for the growth of dynamism of culture.
Marshal and Bishop summary of Gns 106 FUTABASE.COM
Page 7
*philosophically and culturally man lives to the experience of life by going through
experimentation of living.
*philosophy views science and culture as a promoter of life and facilitator of living
*philosophy through cultural and scientific understanding seeks enhance of human life
*culture is a way of life
*science enriches culture while culture blends and utilizes science with life.
* a technologist is a man of culture as much as any scientist.
ETHICS, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Ethics deals with question of right and wrong in human behavior
Science: it is the systematic method of describing or controlling material world
Technology: it is the application of science to practical aim of human life.
Biomedical technology has been organized into three groups:
*control of death
*control of human potentialities
*control of human achievement.
FOR MORE INFORMATION CALL: MARSHAL- 08039268133
BISHOP- 08105764852
BABANEEH 08108096976.
FUTABASE.COM
Marshal and Bishop summary of Gns 106 FUTABASE.COM
Page 8