Portland Community College, Sylvania Campus
BI 233 Lab
Supplemental Package
PCC-Sylvania BI 233 Laboratory Supplement
1
1. Upon entering the laboratory, please locate the exits, fire extinguisher, eyewash station, and
clean up materials for chemical spills. Your instructor will demonstrate the location of fire
blanket, safety kit, and showers.
2. Read the general laboratory directions and any objectives before coming to lab.
3. Food and drink, including water, are prohibited in laboratory. This is per Federal laboratory
guidelines and per College Safety Policy. Do not chew gum, use tobacco products of any kind,
store food or apply cosmetics in the laboratory. No drink containers of any kind may be on the
benches.
4. Please keep all personal materials off the working area. Store backpacks and purses at the rear
of the laboratory, not beside or under benches. Some laboratory spaces have shelving in rear for
this purpose.
5. For your safety, please restrain long hair, loose fitting clothing and dangling jewelry. Hair ties
are available, ask your instructor. Hats and bare midriffs are not acceptable in the laboratory.
Shoes, not sandals, must be worn at all times in laboratory. You may wear a laboratory apron or
lab coat if you desire, but it is not required.
6. We do not wish to invade your privacy, but for your safety if you are pregnant, taking
immunosuppressive drugs or who have any other medical conditions (e.g. diabetes,
immunological defect) that might necessitate special precautions in the laboratory must inform
the instructor immediately. If you know you have an allergy to latex or chemicals, please inform
instructor.
7. Decontaminate work surfaces at the beginning of every lab period using Amphyl solution.
Decontaminate bench following any practical quiz, when given, and after labs involving the
dissection of preserved material.
8. Use safety goggles in all experiments in which solutions or chemicals are heated or when
instructed to do so. Never leave heat sources unattended: hot plates or Bunsen burners.
9. Wear disposable gloves when handling blood and other body fluids or when touching items or
surfaces soiled with blood or other body fluids such as saliva and urine. (NOTE: cover open cuts
or scrapes with a sterile bandage before donning gloves.) Wash your hands immediately after
removing gloves.
10. Keep all liquids away from the edge of the lab bench to avoid spills. Immediately notify your
instructor of any spills. Keep test tubes in racks provided, except when necessary to transfer to
water baths or hot plate. You will be advised of the proper clean-up procedures for any spill.
11. Report all chemical or liquid spills and all accidents, such as cuts or burns, no matter how
minor, to the instructor immediately.
12. Use mechanical pipetting devices only. Mouth pipetting is prohibited.
Students who do not comply with these safety guidelines
will be excluded from the Laboratory
2
Safe Disposal of Contaminated Materials
 Place disposable materials such as gloves, mouth pieces, swabs, toothpicks and paper towels that have
come into contact with blood or other body fluids into a disposable Autoclave bag for
decontamination by autoclaving. This bucket is not for general trash.
 Place glassware contaminated with blood and other body fluids directly into a labeled bucket of 10%
bleach solution. ONLY glass or plastic-ware is to be placed in this bucket, not trash.
 Sharp’s container is for used lancets only. It is bright red. When using disposable lancets do not
replace their covers.
1. Properly label glassware and slides, using china markers provided.
2. Wear disposable gloves when handling blood and other body fluids or when touching items or surfaces
soiled with blood or other body fluids such as saliva and urine. (NOTE: cover open cuts or scrapes with a
sterile bandage before donning gloves.) Wash your hands immediately after removing gloves.
3. Wear disposable gloves when handling or dissecting specimens fixed with formaldehyde or stored in
Carosafe/Wardsafe.
4. Wear disposable gloves when handling chemicals denoted as hazardous or carcinogenic by your
instructor. Read labels on dropper bottles provided for an experiment, they will indicate the need for
gloves or goggles, etc. Upon request, detailed written information is available on every chemical used
(MSDS). Ask your instructor.
5. No pen or pencil is to be used at any time on any model or bone. The bones are fragile, hard to replace
and used by hundreds of students every year. To protect them and keep them in the best condition, please
use pipe cleaners and probes provided instead of a writing instrument.
a. Probes may be used on models as well. The bones are very difficult and costly to replace, as are the
models and may take a long time to replace.
6. At the end of an experiment:
a. Clean glassware and place where designated. Remove china marker labels at this time.
b. Return solutions & chemicals to designated area. Do not put solutions or chemicals in cupboards!
7. You cannot work alone or unsupervised in the laboratory.
8. Microscopes should be cleaned before returning to numbered cabinet. Be sure objectives are clean, use
lens paper. Place objectives into storage position, and return to the storage cabinet. Be sure cord has been
coiled and restrained. Your instructor may require microscope be checked before you put it away. Be sure
it is in assigned cupboard.
9. Please replace your prepared slides into the box from which they came (slides and boxes are
numbered), so students using them after you will be able to find the same slide. Before placing slides in
box, clean it with Kimwipes if it is dirty or covered with oil. If you break a slide, please, inform you
instructor so the slide can be replaced. Please be aware that there is hundreds of dollars worth of slides in
each box and handle the boxes with care when carrying to and from your workbench.
10. Be sure all paper towels used in cleaning lab benches and washing hands are disposed of in trash
container
provided.
Students who do not comply with these safety guidelines
and directions will be excluded from the Laboratory
3
Please Read
You are beginning a very intense laboratory course. Before you come to class you will
want to review what the study focus is for that day’s lab. This is important because you will be
liable (tested) for the information listed in your study guide and manual. There are lists of
terms that you are required to know, as well as tables and diagrams. These are testable as well.
If there are slides listed in the study guide then you are also liable to identify these structures
under the microscope on quizzes or on practicals. There will also be various models that are
available in the classroom which will be used in the tests. It is up to the student to identify the
structures on these models. Remember, majority of your practicals will be on these models.
Please do not think that you will be able to look at the pictures in the book and do well on
quizzes and practicals. YOU NEED TO SPEND TIME WITH THE MODELS!
Some labs will have exercises that are required. Please make sure that you understand
what was learned in these exercises because these are also fair game to be used for questions
in the tests.
Each lab will start with a 10 point quiz. You are required to be in attendance at the
beginning of each lab. You will receive a zero on the quiz if you miss it. There will not be
quizzes on the weeks we have a practical or the week after a practical. If you stay in lab only
long enough to take the quiz and then leave soon after the lab will be counted as a missed lab.
Spelling can account for up to 10% off of your grade so please be careful. Also be aware
of singular and plural usage because these mistakes will count as spelling errors.
Absences: You cannot miss more than two labs and still pass the course. Also you can
only attend another instructor’s class once during the quarter. This must be approved by both
instructors. If you attend another instructor’s lab without permission your quiz will be
automatically thrown out.
There are review sheets at the end of each exercise that we recommend that you do.
You will not receive credit for these pages but they will help you study the material and prepare
for the tests.
Any material found in the lab manual can be used for the extra credit questions.
If you have any questions please contact Marilyn Thomas, Lab Coordinator
(Marilyn.thomas@pcc.edu) Thank you!
4
Lab 1
Exercise 35: Structure of the Respiratory System
Lab Objectives:
1. Identify the organs and significant structures of the respiratory system on models or pictures
2. Be able to define the role of the respiratory system in terms of the overall function of the body
3. Distinguish among a bronchus, bronchiole and alveolus in a prepared slide of the lung
Upper Respiratory Tract
Nose and Nasal Cartilages
External nares (nostrils)
Nasal septum
Perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone
Vomer
Septal cartilage
Mucous membrane
*Respiratory epithelium (pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium)
*goblet cells
Nasal conchae
Superior
Middle
Inferior
Sinuses
Frontal
Maxillary
Sphenoid
Ethmoid
Pharynx
Nasopharynx
Auditory (Eustachian) tubes
Oropharynx
Uvula
Laryngopharynx
Tonsils
Palatine
Lingual
Pharyngeal
Hard Palate
Soft Palate
5
Lower Respiratory Tract
Esophagus
Larynx (voice box)
Thyroid cartilage (hyaline cartilage)
Cricoid cartilage (hyaline cartilage)
Vocal folds (true vocal cords)
Vestibular folds (false vocal cords)
*Epiglottis (elastic cartilage)
Glottis
Cricothyroid ligament
Trachea and Bronchi
*Tracheal cartilages (hyaline)
chrondrocytes
Carina
*trachealis muscle
Tracheal glands (sero-mucous)
Main (Primary) bronchi
Lobar (secondary) bronchi
Segmental (tertiary) bronchi
Lungs
Apex
Base
Hilus
Pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein
Right lung
3 lobes (superior, middle, inferior)
Horizontal and oblique fissures
Left lung
2 lobes (superior, inferior)
Oblique fissure
Cardiac notch
Histology of the lung and trachea
*Trachea
*Ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelial lining
*Goblet cells
*Sero-mucous glands
*Hyaline cartilage rings
*Smooth muscle
*bronchioles
*Low columnar/cuboidal epithelia
No goblet cells
No glands
6
Smooth muscle
*alveolar ducts
*alveoli
*Type I pneumocytes (covers 95% of alveolar surface but only accounts for about 40% of
pneumocyte population)
Respiratory membrane
*Type II Pneumocytes (constitutes about 60% of the pneumocytes but only covers 5% of
the surface area)
Also called septal cells
Surfactant
*Macrophages (dust cells)
*alveolar sacs
Respiratory membrane = alveolus + basement membrane + capillary epithelium
Pleural Cavities
Parietal pleura
Visceral pleura
Mediastinum
Definitions:
Cough reflex
Emphysema
What effect does emphysema have on the surface area of the lungs?
7
Lab 2
Exercise 40: Respiratory Function, Breathing,
Respiration
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Measure pulmonary volumes and calculate the pulmonary capacities
Know tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume and vital capacity
Calculate above using the spirometers available in class
Identify the above on a spirogram
Determine whether a person will inhale or exhale based on the differences in air pressure
between the lungs and the external air
6. How does carbon dioxide in solution change the pH of the solution
7. Use the stethoscope to listed to respiratory sounds
8. Determine the forced expiratory volume exhaled in 1 second
Inspiratory Muscles
Diaphragm
External intercostals
Accessory muscles of inspiration
Scalene muscles
Pectoralis minor
Serratus anterior
Sternocleidomastoid
Expiratory Muscles (forced exhalation)
Internal intercostals
Transverses thoracic
Abdominal muscles
Definitions:
Acidosis
hypercapnia
Alkalosis
Hypocapnia
Pulmonary ventilation
Ventilation rate
Pulmonary volume
8
Measurement of relaxed Breathing rate:
______________________________________
Estimation of what will happen with exercise: _______________________________________
Number of breaths per minute after 2 minutes of exercise: ____________________________
What kind of exercise did you perform? ______________________________
Measurement of Pulmonary Volumes and Capacities
VC = TV + ERV + IRV
Pulmonary volumes
Tidal volume (TV)
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
Residual Volume (approximately 1000mL)
Capacities
Vital Capacity (VC)
Percent of Expected Vital Capacity
Forced expiratory vital Capacity (FEV)
Complete this chart:
TV
ERV
IRV
FVC
Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Average
Forced Expiratory Vital Capacity (FEV)
100-75
74-60
59-50
<50
9
Normal
mild COPD
moderate COPD
severe COPD
FEV₁
FEV₁/FVC
(%)
How does the FEV₁/VC% compare in a person with a pulmonary obstructive condition, such as
asthma? Why
How does the FEV₁/VC% compare in a person with a pulmonary restrictive condition, such as
asbestosis? Why?
Examine the predicted vital capacity chart. What is the approximate percent decrease of vital
capacity in the same individual from age 25 to age 75?
Calculate your Minute Ventilation: _________________________
Flow and Resistance:
Time for maximum inhalation: ___________ seconds
Time for inhalation through one nostril ________________ seconds
Listen to respiratory sounds:
Acid-Base effects of the respiratory gases: (acidosis vs alkalosis)
What happens to the pH of water when one exhales into it?
What is Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)?
Aerobic Exercise
Anaerobic exercise
Measure Heart Rate: _____________________
Do Harvard Step Test
What is the purpose of this test?
What is your PFI? _______________________
What is the fitness evaluation? __________________________
10
If the heart rate after 5 minutes of exercise was 70, 68, and 66 beats in the consecutive 30-second
trials, what was the personal fitness index and what condition does that represent?
What are the American Heart Association recommendations for Exercise?
Calculate your BMI: _________________
Waist/Hip Ratio
Females
Males
Health Risk
.80- or below
.95 or below
low risk
.81 to .85
.96 to 1.00
moderate risk
.85+
1.0+
high risk
What is the pressure difference between the external air and the pleural cavity when inhalation just
begins?
How does excess carbon dioxide change the acid-base condition of a solution?
How does breathing rate affect the acid-base condition of the body?
11
Exercise 42: Anatomy of the Digestive system
Lab Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
ID the major organs of the alimentary canal on models
Describe the basic function of the accessory digestive organs
Describe and ID the layers of the wall of the gastrointestinal tract
Describe the major functions of the stomach and small and large intestines
Note specific anatomical features of each major digestive organ
Alimentary Canal
Mouth
*Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium
Tongue
Genioglossus
Lingual frenulum
Papillae
*Fungiform
*Filiform
*Vallate
*Taste buds
Muscles of Mastication
Masseter
Temporalis
Teeth
Crown
Neck
Root
Enamel
Dentine
Gingiva
Teeth Types
Incisors
Canines (cuspids)
Premolars (bicuspids)
Molars
Esophagus
Bolus
Skeletal and smooth muscle
Peristalsis
*Non Keratinized Stratified squamous epithelium
12
*esophageal glands
Esophageal sphincter
*Adventitia
Alimentary Canal Layers
*Mucosa
Mucous membrane (simple columnar epithelium with goblet cells)
Lamina propria (connective tissue)
Muscularis mucosae
*submucosa (mostly connective tissue with blood vessels)
*Muscularis externa (2 or 3 layers smooth muscle)
*Serosa (visceral peritoneum)
Stomach
Cardia (cardiac region)
Fundus (fundic region
Body
Pyloric region
Pyloric sphincter
rugae
Greater curvature
Lesser curvature
Stomach Histology
*Mucosa
*Gastric pits
*Gastric glands
*Surface mucous cells (secrete mucous)
*Chief Cells (pepsinogen)
*Parietal cells (HCL)
*Muscularis
Inner oblique layer
Middle circular layer
Outer longitudinal layer
*Serosa
Simple squamous epithelium
Small Intestine
Duodenum
Pancreas
Gallbladder
Pancreatic duct
13
Hepatopancreatic ampulla (ampulla of Vater)
Jejunum
Ileum
Ileocecal valve
Histology of the small intestine
*Villi
Blood vessels
Lacteals
*Duodenal (Brunner’s) glands
*Peyer’s patches (aggregated lymph nodules)
Large intestine
Cecum
Ascending colon
Transverse colon
Descending colon
Sigmoid colon
Rectum
Hemorrhoidal veins
Taeniae coli
Haustra
Omental (epiploic) appendages
Histology of Large Intestine
No villi
Large numbers of goblet cells
Accessory Organs
Salivary Glands
Saliva
Mucus
Salivary amylase
*Mucus acini
*serous acini
*demilunes
Parotid Glands
Submandibular glands
Sublingual glands
Vermiform appendix
Liver
14
Right lobe
Left lobe
Quadrate lobe
Caudate lobe
Falciform ligament
Common bile duct
Gallbadder
Liver Histology
*Liver lobules
*Central vein
Sinusoids
*Hepatocytes
Kupffer cells
*Portal triad
*Hepatic portal vein
*Proper hepatic artery
*Bile duct
*Pancreas
Pancreatic duct
*acinar cells
Secrete:___________________________
*Islets of Langerhans cells:
Secrete: ___________________________
Membranes of GI Tract
Visceral peritoneum (serosa)
Mesentery
Parietal peritoneum
Lesser omentum
Greater omentum
*Should be able to identify these structures on microscope slides
15
BI 233
Anatomy & Physiology 233
Lab 4: Digestion of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Fat
Today’s Lab Objectives:
1. Be able to describe the digestive action of salivary amylase, pepsin, and pancreatic lipase
2. Understand how the activity of salivary amylase and pepsin is influenced by changes in pH
and temperature
3. Describe the ability of pepsin to digest large proteins
4. Describe why the stomach does not normally digest itself
5. Define emulsification
Follow the instructions in your lab manual for digestion of Carbohydrates, proteins and fats. While
waiting for results do peristalsis activity and review histology for next week’s practical.
Peristalsis
Directions:
1. Get a cup of water and a stethoscope
2. Person #1 will listen to person #2 about 1 inch to the left of the Xiphoid process while #2 takes a
large drink of water.
3. You should listen for 2 sounds
a. The splash of the water arriving at the lower esophageal sphincter (LES)
b. The splash of the water entering the stomach
What is the difference between peristalsis and segmentation?
Why is it important to keep the LES (lower esophageal sphincter) closed if there is no food waiting to
get into the stomach?
16
Digestion of Macromolecules
Macromolecule Enzymes used to
digest
Carbohydrates
lipids
Digestion
helpers
Salivary amylase
Organs from which
enzymes and helps are
secreted
Salivary glands
Pancreatic amylase
Pancreas
Brush border
enzymes
(lactase, sucrase,
maltase)
Small intestine
Salivary Lipase
Begins limited digestion
of triglycerides
Stomach: digests about
10-15% of dietary fat
Pancreas
Made in liver stored in
gall bladder
Stomach: chief cells in the
form of pepsinogen
Stomach: parietal cells
Gastric lipase
Pancreatic lipase
bile
proteins
Pepsin
HCL:
activates
Pepsin
trypsin
chymotrypsin
17
Enterokinase
(enzyme)
activates and
then more
Trypsin
activates
even more
Trypsin
activates
Pancreas: in the form of
trypsinogen
Pancreas: in the form of
chymotrypsinogen
Products
Partially digests
starches we eat
Small
polysaccharide to
disaccharides
Disaccharides to
monosaccharides
(glucose,
gructose and
galactose are
absorbed into
the blood
Glycerol and
fatty acids,
monoglycerides
Emulsifies fats
Partially digests
protein
Denatures
protein and
activates
pepsinogen to
pepsin
Break down
protein into
polypeptides and
amino acids
Breaks down
proteins into a
mixture of
carboxypeptidase
Trypsin
activates
Elastase
Trypsin
activates
Aminopeptidase
Dipeptidase
Lab Practical Next Week
75 questions (timed)
One bonus question – 2 points
18
Pancreas: in the form of
procarboxypeptidase
Brush border of small
intestine
Pancreas: in the form of
proelastase
Brush border of small
intestine
dipeptides,
tripeptides and
amino acids
Same as above
Same as above
Removes amino
acids and
separate
dipeptides into
separate amino
acids
Lab 6
Exercise 40: Anatomy of the Urinary System
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Identify on models the major organs of the urinary system
Describe the blood flow through the kidney
Describe the flow of filtrate through the kidney
Name the major parts of the nephron
Trace the flow of urine from the kidney to the exterior of the body
Distinguish among the parts of the nephron in histological sections
Terms to know: (where these occur)
Filtration
Reabsorption
Secretion
Kidneys
Retroperitoneal
Renal fat pads
Renal capsule (tough connective tissue layer)
Cortex
Medulla
Renal pyramids
Renal papilla
Renal columns
Renal sinus (includes blood and lymphatic vessels, nerves and urine collecting structures)
Minor calyces
Major calyces
Renal pelvis
Hilum
Renal artery
Renal vein
Ureter
19
Blood flow Through the Kidney:
Renal artery
Segmental arteries
Interlobar arteries
Arcuate arteries
Interlobular arteries
Afferent arteriole
Glomerulus
Efferent arteriole
Peritubular capillaries
Interlobular veins
Arcuate veins
Interlobar veins
Renal vein
Vasa recta
Microscopic Examination of the Kidney
Nephron (cortical and juxtamedullary)
*Renal corpuscle (Bowman’s capsule and glomerulus)
*Proximal convoluted tubule
Loop of Henle
*Distal convoluted tubule
*Macula densa
*Collecting Ducts
*Ureters:
*Transitional epithelium
*Smooth muscle
*Urinary bladder
Anteperitoneal (located anterior to the parietal peritoneum)
*Transition epithelium
*Detrusor muscles
Trigone
Urethra
Know difference in length between males and females
External urethral orifice
20
Exercise 41: Urinalysis
Objectives:
1. Test your own urine and compare it to normal values
2. List the sediments commonly found in urine
3. Discuss the importance of urinalysis as a general diagnostic tool
4. Distinguish among casts, crystals and microbes in a urine sample
5. Prepare a stained sediment slide and identify the major components of the sediment
Terms to know:
Urochrome
Glycosuria
Bilirubinuria
Ketonuria (ketosis)
Hematuria
Albuminuria
Urobilinogen
Hemolysis
Pyuria
Renal calculi (kidney stones)
What makes urine yellow?
What can cause urine to be red?
What causes cloudiness?
What is the normal range for the specific gravity of urine?
What conditions would lead to a specific gravity of 1.030?
What conditions would lead to a specific gravity of 1.001?
What can cause an ammonia-like odor to urine?
How does diet influence urinary pH?
Elevated levels of white blood cells produce what condition in urine?
What cells found in the urine originally come from the walls of the urethra?
What cells found in the urine come from the wall of the urinary bladder?
21
The most important nitrogenous wastes to enter the urine are urea, uric acid, and creatinine.
Urea comes from: _______________________________________________
Uric acid comes from: ____________________________________________
Creatinine comes from: ___________________________________________
Follow the procedure in your lab manual for testing your own urine. Analyze your urine and test
samples found in the classroom. Fill in the following table with your results:
Your urine
Tube 1
Tube 2
Tube 3
Tube 4
Leukocytes
Nitrite
urobilinogen
protein
pH
Blood/hemoglobin
Specific gravity
ketone
bilirubin
Glucose
From the results in your table and using the descriptions in your lab book, diagnose what (if anything)
might be wrong with the individual. If normal write “normal”.
Yours: ________________________________________________________________
Tube 1:________________________________________________________________
Tube 2:________________________________________________________________
Tube 3:________________________________________________________________
Tube 4:________________________________________________________________
22
Lab 7
Exercise 42: Male Reproductive System
Lab Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Describe the gamete-producing organ of the male reproductive system
Identify major structures of the male reproductive system
Describe the formation of sperm cells in the testis
List the pathway that sperm cells follow from production to expulsion
List the four components of semen
Describe the anatomy of the spermatic cord
Identify the three cylinders of erectile tissue in the penis
Testes
Tunica albuginea
Scrotum
Dartos muscle
Cremaster muscle
Histology of the Testis
*seminiferous Tubules
*spermatogonia
Primary spermatocytes
Sustentacular cells (Sertoli)
Blood testis barrier (BTB)
Secondary spermatocytes
*spermatids
*sperm cells
Head
Midpeice
Tail
acrosome
Spermatogenesis (know the process)
*interstitial cells
Testosterone
*Epididymis
Rete testis
Head
Body
Tail
Capacitation (sperm maturation)
*Spermatic Cord
Ductus deferens
Testicular artery and vein
23
Testicular nerves
Inguinal canal
Ampulla
Seminal vesicle
Ejaculatory duct
Prostate gland
Bulbourethral (Cowper’s) glands
Urethra
Prostatic: lined with transitional epithelium
Membranous: lined with pseudo stratified columnar epithelium or stratified columnar
Spongy (penile): lined with pseudo stratified columnar epithelium or stratified columnar
Penis
Glans penis
Prepuce (foreskin)
Circumcision
Corpus spongiosum
Corpora cavernosa
Vasectomy
Exercise 47: Female Reproductive System
Lab Objectives:
1. Identify structures and functions of the female reproductive system
2. Trace the pathway of a gamete from the ovary to the usual site of implantation
3. Identify the layers of the uterus
Ovary
*Oocytes
Ovulation
Histology of the Ovary
*Stroma
Cells
*Follicle cells
*Granulosa cells
*Thecal cells
*Corona radiata
Ovarian follicles
*Primordial follicles
*primary follicles
*secondary follicles
24
*Corona radiata
*antrum
*Mature ovarian follicles (Graafian follicles)
*Corpus luteum
Corpus albicans
Uterine Tubes
Fimbriae
Uterus
Fundus
Body
Cervix
Histology of the Uterus
perimetrium
*myometrium
*endometrium
Functional layer
Basal layer
Ovarian and Menstrual Cycles
Hormones
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
Estrogen
Progesterone
Menstrual phase
Proliferative phase
Secretory phase
Menstruation
Ligaments
Broad ligament
Round ligament
Ovarian ligament
Suspensory ligament
Vagina
Fornix
Stratified squamous epithelium
Muscularis layer
Adventitia
External Genitalia
Vulva
Mons pubis
Clitoris
25
Labia minora
Prepuce
Labia majora
Urethral orifice
Viginal orifice
Hymen
Greater vestibular (bartholin’s) glands
Anatomy of the Breast
Areola
Nipple
*Adipose tissue
*Mammary glands
Lactiferous ducts
Lactiferous sinuses
Lab 8
26
Lab Exercise 39: Human Development and
gametogenesis
Lab Objectives:
1. Be able to describe the differences between spermatogenesis and oogenesis
2. Identify major features of successive developmental stages on models or charts
3. Describe the fetal circulatory plan and the changes in circulation that occur around the time of
birth.
Male spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis: (May have to use your textbook to answer the following)
1. Where does spermatogenesis take place?
2. To help you understand spermatogenesis, sort the following in the correct order, from least
mature to most mature:
_______ Spermatids
_______ Primary spermatocyte
_______ Functional sperm
_______ Secondary spermatocyte
_______ Spermatogonia.
3. Which undergoes mitosis?
4. Which are 2n (46 chromosomes) and which are 1n?
5. What is the difference between the terms spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis?
6. What is the difference between the terms spermiogenesis and capacitation?
7. Describe the contents of the head, midpiece, and tail of spermatozoa.
27
Female oogenesis and meiosis
1.
Primary oocytes are found in ____________________, ____________________ as well as early
secondary follicles
Secondary oocytes are found in late ______________________ and
___________________follicles
Which are 2n, which are 1n?
2. Which one is ovulated?
3. What is produced after sperm penetration, and before fusion of the male and female pronuclei?
4. What is a polar body?
5. What is a zygote?
Embryology Lab
Define these terms: Use your text book to define the following terms
1. Zygote
2. Blastomeres
3. Morula
4. Blastocyst
5. Inner cell mass
6. Trophoblast
28
7. Blastocoele
29
*Identify these structures and describe their function
8. Syncytiotrophoblast*
a. What enzyme is secreted to erode the
endometrium?
9. Cytotrophoblast*
10. Chorionic villi*
11. Embryonic disc*
a. Endoderm
b. Ectoderm
30
12. Amnion (amniotic cavity)*
31
13. Yolk sac*
14. Primitive streak
15. Mesoderm*
16. Allantois
17. Chorion
32
Also in this picture:
a. Endometrium
b. Chorionic villi
c. Amniotic cavity
d.
Syncytiotrophobla
st
e. Cytotrophoblast
f. Blastocoele
g. Lacunae
18. How long is the human gestational period (from fertilization to parturition)?
a. How long is it if you calculate from the last menstrual period?
19. What is the term for rapid mitotic cell division without cell growth?
20. What hormone is secreted by the trophoblast? (Hint: Used to detect pregnancy)
21. Which part of the blastocyst will become the embryo?
22. Where are embryonic blood cells made?
23. Explain why the corpus luteum does not degenerate if an embryo implants into the uterus.
24. Define gastrulation.
25. List the structures that are formed by ectoderm.
26. List the structures that are formed by mesoderm.
27. List the structures that are formed by endoderm.
33
Placenta
Identify these structures:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Umbilical arteries
Umbilical vein
Chorionic villi
Maternal blood vessels
Syncytiotrophoblast
Amnion
Area filled with maternal blood
Decidua basalis of the endometrium
28. When is the placenta fully formed and functional?
29. Is the blood oxygenated or deoxygenated in these umbilical vessels?
a. Two arteries
b. One vein
30. What 6 hormones are secreted by the placenta and what are their functions?
34
Lab 9
Exercise 40: Genetics and Heredity
Terms to know and problems (if applicable be able to give examples):
Genetics
Genome
Genomics
Chromosomes
Centromere
Genes
Locus (plural loci): location of gene on a chromosome
Alleles: various forms of a given gene
Genotype
Homozygous
Heterozygous
Phenotype
35
Autosomes
Dominant genes
Recessive genes
Polygenic Inheritance (many loci contribute to the phenotype)
Multi allelic Inheritance (ABO blood types)
Use this chart to determine your phenotype for the following characteristics
Trait
Dominant
Gene
Recessive
Gene
Sodium
S
Benzoate taste
PTC taste
P
Thiourea taste T
s
Bent Little
finger
Middigital hair
L
l
M
m
Hitchhiker’s
thumb
Pigmented
anterior of iris
Attached
earlobes
Widow’s peak
H
h
I
i
A
a
W
w
Tongue roll
R
r
Freckles
F
f
ABO blood
type
Rh blood type
IA, IB
i
D
d
36
p
t
Your
Phenotype
Possible
Genotypes
Practice problems:
1. Huntington’s disease (HD), or Huntington’s chorea, is a degenerative nerve disorder with a
genetic basis that becomes apparent after about the age 40. The abnormal gene that produces
this disease, H, is dominant. The normal, recessive gene is h. One of Heather’s parents has HD
but the other doesn’t. Can you predict the highest probability that Heather will develop HF later
in her life?
2. Leo’s father has albinism, but Leo doesn’t. Cleo’s father has albinism, but she doesn’t. Albinism is
caused by a recessive gene in which the person’s cells are incapable of producing melanin. If Cleo
and Leo have a child, what is the probability that it will have albinism? What is the probability
that their second child will have albinism? Their third?
What is the probability that all 3 will have albinism?
3. Kevin has Rh-positive blood. His wife, Christine, has Rh-negative blood. Their first child, Andrew,
has Rh-positive. Both of Kevin’s parents have Rh-positive blood. What is the probability that the
child Kevin and Christine are expecting will be Rh-negative?
37
Codominant
4. In the ABO blood typing system, Mario is type O, Ana is type AB. What ABO blood types might
their children have?
5. Janet has type A blood (genotype AO) and Dale has type B blood (genotype BB). What ABO blood
types might their children have?
6. Say a mother has a 50% chance of having a blue-eyed child and 50% chance of having a browneyed child. If she has had six kids, all blue-eyed, what is the probability that her seventh kid will
be blue eyed?
What is the probability that all 7 kids have blue eyes?
38
Incomplete dominance
7. If curly-haired individuals are genotypically CC, straight-haired individuals are cc, and wavy-haired
individuals are heterozygotes (Cc). What percentage of the various phenotypes would be
anticipated from a cross between a CC woman and cc man?
Sex chromosomes
Sex-Linked Inheritance
8. An X X female marries an XCY man. Do a Punnett square for this match. What is the probability
of producing a color-blind son?
A color-blind daughter?
A daughter who is a carrier for the color-blind allele?
C c
39
Karyotype
(Chromosomes displayed in a systematized arrangement in descending order of size)
Chromosome abnormalities
Non-disjunction problems:
Trisomy
Trisomy 21 (Down’s syndrome)
40
Monosomy
Turner’s syndrome
Klinefelter’s syndrome
41
Duplication: (Fragile X syndrome is an example)
Caused by repeats on the X
chromosomes. Most people have
about 29 repeats but persons with
Fragile X have over 700 repeats due
to duplications.
It is a major cause of mental
retardation and is found more in
males because of the single X
chromosome.
Translocation defect
42
Pedigrees
What is a pedigree?
Pedigree analysis
Pedigree key:
Unaffected male
Unaffected female
Affected male
Affected female
Pedigree Problems:
1. In the following human pedigrees, the filled symbols represent the affected
individuals. You may assume that the disease allele is rare and therefore
individuals marrying into the family are unlikely to have defective allele.
#1
#2
#4
43
#3
#5
a. What is the most likely mode of inheritance for this pedigree?
State the genotypes of individuals’ #1-5 in the following table using the letter “A”. Use
the uppercase letter to represent the dominant allele and lowercase letter to represent
the recessive allele.
Individual
#1
#2
#3
#4
#5
Genotype
b. If Individuals #2 and #3 have another son what are the chances that this son will
be affected?
2. You are analyzing the following human pedigree
Assume that the individual marked with an asterisk (*) does not carry any allele
associated with the affected phenotype and that no other mutation spontaneously
occurs. Also assume complete penetrance. Use “R or XR” for the allele
associated with the dominant phenotype, “r or Xr” for the allele associated with
the recessive phenotype.
#1
*
A?
#2
#3
B?
a. What is the most likely mode of inheritance of this disease? Choose from: autosomal
dominant, autosomal recessive, X-linked dominant, X-linked recessive
44
b. List all possible genotypes of the following individuals in the predigree.
Individuals
Genotypes
#1
#2
#3
c. What is the probability of Individual A being affected?
d. What is the probability of Individual B being affected?
45