Specific Learning Disabilities
• Normal Intelligence Range
• Terminology established in 1963 by Sam
Kirk
• Causation varied (minimal brain injury,
perceptual disorders, IQ-achievement
discrepancy, environmental, etc.)
Federal Definition of
Specific Learning Disabilities
Federal Definition
The majority of states use a definition based
on the definition of the federal government.
This definition, first signed into law in
1977, was—with few minor wording
changes—adopted again in 1997 by the
federal government:
Federal Definition
A. GENERAL—The long term “specific
learning disability” means a disorder in
one or more of the basic psychological
processes involved in understanding or in
using language, spoken or written, which
disorder may manifest itself in an
imperfect ability to listen, think, speak,
read, write, spell, or do mathematical
calculations
Federal Definition
B. DISORDERS INCLUDED—Such term
includes such conditions as perceptual
disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain
dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental
aphasia
Federal Definition
C. DISORDERS NOT INCLUDED—Such
term does not include a learning problem
that is primarily the result of visual,
hearing, or motor disabilities, of mental
retardation, of emotional disturbance, or
of environmental, cultural, or economic
disadvantage.
Prevalence—Learning Disabilities
• 5 – 6% of students ages 6 to 17 are learning
disabled
• Learning disabilities is the largest category
in special education
Assessment of Intelligence
Although the testing practices of today
differ markedly from those of 4,000 years
ago, when formal testing was first
introduced, the premise has remained very
much the same, to distinguish those who
are successful at solving problems from
those who are not.
Less Able
Brilliant
Able
Average
Smart
The Influence of Alfred Binet
The first effective test of intellectual
ability was devised in the early
1900s by French psychologists
Alfred Binet, Victor Henri, and
Theodore Simon.
Alfred Binet
Binet and Simon went to great
lengths to differentiate between the
concepts of natural intelligence and
acquired intelligence. They were
interested in measuring one’s
capacity to learn rather than simply
knowledge gained through
instruction.
The Influence of David Wechsler
David Wechsler’s (1896-1981)
influence on assessment in the
schools has been profound.
David Wechsler
The Wechsler scales are a series of
three individually administered
intelligence tests, modeled after one
another, in which a person’s
intellectual abilities are described
using a verbal/motor framework.
The Wechsler scales have provided
the preferred vehicle for the
identification and classification of
countless school-age children for
nearly half a century.
Curriculum-Based Assessment
Curriculum-Based Assessment
(CBA) is a type of performance
assessment that is widely used in
special education. CBA strengthens
the connection between assessment
and instructors by evaluating the
student in terms of the curricular
requirements of the student’s own
school or classroom. For example,
if the student is expected to spell
certain words in the classroom, the
assessment measures the student’s
performance on those words.
Criterion-Referenced Tests
Criterion-referenced tests measure a student’s mastery of
specific skills. For example, does the pupil recognize –ing
endings? Does the student know the meaning of the prefix dis-?
Can the student subtract single-digit numbers through 10?
The teacher can set an acceptable criterion for mastery, such as
90 percent. When that performance level is reached, the
student is taught the next skill in the sequence.
Criterion-referenced tests describe rather than compare
performance, measuring mastery levels rather than grade
levels.
Formal Standardized Tests
norm-referenced
 The test is usually available in more than one form so that a student can be
examined more than once without obtaining a high score due to practice.
 The test is accompanied by a manual giving directions for administration,
scoring and interpretation.
 The manual contains grade norms, age norms, and possibly percentile ranks or
some form of scaled scores.
The manual has information on validity (the degree to which the test measures
what it is supposed to measure). The manual also shows reliability (consistency
or similarity of performance). A reliability coefficient of 0.90 indicates that if the
test were given to the student again, it is 90 percent likely that the student would
obtain a score in the same range.
Commonly Used Academic Tests
General Reading Tests
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•
•
•
•
California Achievement Tests: Reading
Gates-MacGintie Reading Tests
Metropolitan Achievement Tests: Reading
SRA Achievement Series: Reading
Stanford Achievement Test: Reading
Commonly Used Academic Tests
Diagnostic Reading Tests
• Analytic Reading Inventory
• DARTTS (Diagnostic
Assessment of Reading with
Trial Lessons)
• Diagnostic Reading Inventory
• Gates-McKillop-Horowitz
Reading Diagnostic Tests
• Stanford Diagnostic Reading
Test
• Test of Reading Comprehension
(TORC)
• Woodcock Reading Mastery
Tests--Revised
Commonly Used Academic Tests
Comprehensive Batteries of Academic Tests
•
•
•
•
•
•
California Achievement Tests
Iowa Tests of Basic Skills
Metropolitan Achievement Tests
SRA Achievement Series
Stanford Achievement Test
Wide-Range Achievement Test—III (WRAT-III)
Commonly Used Academic Tests
Diagnostic Academic Tests and Test Batteries
• Brigance Diagnostic
Comprehensive Inventory of Basic
Skill
• Kaufman Test of Educational
Achievement (K-TEA)
• Key Math--Revised
• Peabody Individual Achievement
Test—Revised (PIAT-R)
• Stanford Diagnostic Mathematics
Test
• Test of Written Spelling—2
• Woodcock-Johnson
Psychoeducational Battery—
Revised: Achievement Tests
Commonly Used Academic Tests
Language Tests
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articulation
Houston Test for Language Development
Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test
Test of Adolescent Language—2 (TOAL-2)
Test of Language Development—2 (TOLD-2)
Test of Language Development—2 Primary
Test of Written Language—2 (TOWL-2)
Test of Auditory Comprehension of Language--Revised
Eligibility for Specific Learning Disabled Children
Each child shall have a multifactored evaluation for initial
placement that includes, but is not necessarily limited to,
evaluations in the following areas:
1. General intelligence as determined through a measure
of cognitive functioning administered by a qualified
psychologist using a test designed for individual
administration;
Less Able
Brilliant
+
=
Able
Average
Smart
Eligibility for Specific Learning Disabled Children
2. Academic Performance as measured through the use of
standardized tests designed for individual administration which
must include evaluation in the areas of:
Basic Reading Skills
Reading Comprehension
Mathematics Reasoning
Mathematic Calculation
Eligibility for Specific Learning Disabled Children
3. Vision, hearing, and motor abilities;
Motor Abilities
Vision
Hearing
Eligibility for Specific Learning Disabled Children
4. Communicative status, which must include
assessments in the areas of:
Oral Expression
Listening Comprehension
Written Expression
Eligibility for Specific Learning Disabled Children
5. Social and emotional status
Gregarious
Nonplussed
Happy
Familial Affection
Love/Hate Relationships
Methods of Obtaining Assessment Information
Tom’s Portfolio
Case history/interview
Informal Measures
Observation
Formal Tests
Alternative or Informal Assessment
•Authentic/performance assessment
•Teacher-made tests
•Portfolio assessment
•Dynamic assessment
•Diagnostic teaching
•Curriculum-based assessment
•Rating scales
•Criterion-referenced tests
Formal Standardized Tests
These tests are also called norm-referenced because their scores
are derived from their administration to a large group of children.
1. The test is usually available in more than one
form so that a student can be examined more than
once without obtaining a high score due to practice.
E=MC2
CE2=M
E=M2C
MCE2=?
E2=CM
ME2=C
Formal Standardized Tests
2. The test is accompanied by a manual giving directions for:
Administration
Interpretation
Formal Standardized Tests
3. The manual contains:
Age Norms
Grade Norms
%
Percentile Ranks or some form of Scaled Scores
Formal Standardized Tests
4. The manual has information on validity (the degree to which the
test measures what it is supposed to measure). A reliability
coefficient of 0.90 indicates that if the test were given to the
student again, it is 90 percent likely that the student would obtain a
score in the same range.
80%
84%
81%
Adequacy of Formal Tests Used in Learning Disabilities
The integrity of formal tests is judged on:
=
Standardization
Reliability
On what group was the test standardized?
Are the test results consistent?
=
Manipulation Rate of Puppets over 5 years
Validity
Does the test measure what it claims to measure?
Tests of Mental Abilities and Mental Processes
The purpose of general intelligence tests is to assess the
global aspects of intellectual ability. These tests provide
information about the student’s aptitude for learning and
specific cognitive attributes.
Commonly used individual intelligence tests that are
typically administered by psychologists are the WISC-III
(Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children- Third Edition),
the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, - Fourth Edition, and
the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC).
WISC-III Verbal Tests
These tests use oral language for administration and student
responses. Their descriptions follow.
What does the
statue of liberty
stand for?
Freedom and
Justice for
All?
Information: In this test, the examiner orally presents a series of
questions about common event; objects, places; and people. The child’s
answers indicate knowledge about this common information.
WISC-III Verbal Tests
What do an
apple and an
orange have in
common?
They are
both
fruits?
Similarities: In this test, the examiner orally presents a series of pairs of
words. The child explains the similarity of the common objects or
concepts the words represent.
WISC-III Verbal Tests
9?
Arithmetic: This test is a series of orally presented arithmetic problems.
The child mentally solves the problems and responds orally.
WISC-III Verbal Tests
Pencil
Hand-Held Mechanical
Inscriber?
Vocabulary: This test is a series of orally presented words. The child
orally defines the words.
WISC-III Verbal Tests
What would you do
if you found a
stamped envelope
lying on the ground?
Open it to see if someone
sent cash in the mail?
Comprehension: This is a series of orally presented questions.
Formulating the answer requires the child to solve everyday problems or
to understand social rules and concepts.
WISC-III Verbal Tests
1,3, 5, 7, #%@&!
1, 3, 5, 7, 234
Digit Span: This test is a series of orally presented number sequences.
The child must repeat verbatim the number sequences for digits forward
and in reverse order for digits backwards.
WISC-III Performance Tests
These tests are presented visually, and the subjects respond by
performing some task. Their descriptions follow.
An eyelet to the shoe is missing!
Picture Completion: This test consists of a set of colorful pictures of
common objects and scenes, each of which is missing an important part.
The child identifies the missing part.
WISC-III Performance Tests
4
2
1
2
1
4
Coding: This test consists of a series of simple shapes (Coding A) or
numbers (Coding B), each paired with a simple symbol. The child is
required to draw the symbol in its corresponding shape (Coding A) or
under its corresponding number(Coding B) according to a key.
WISC-III Performance Tests
Man Riding Bicycle
Man gets in Accident
Man receives medical assistance
Picture Arrangement: This is a set of colorful pictures presented in a
mixed-up order. The child rearranges the pictures into a logical story
sequence.
WISC-III Performance Tests
Block Design: This test consists of a set of modeled or printed twodimensional geometric patterns. The child replicates the patterns using
two-color cubes.
WISC-III Performance Tests
Object Assembly: This is a set of puzzles of common objects, each
presented in a standardized configuration. The child assembles the puzzle
parts to form a meaningful whole.
WISC-III Performance Tests
Target Group
Search Group
Symbol Search: This is a series of paired groups of symbols, each pair
consisting of a target group and a search group. The child scans the two
groups and indicates whether a target symbol appears in the search
group.
WISC-III Performance Tests
Mazes: This test, printed in a response booklet, is a set of increasingly
difficult mazes. The child solves the maze using a pencil.
Diagnostic Academic Tests and Test Batteries
•Brigance Diagnostic Comprehensive Inventory of Basic Skill
•Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement (K-TEA)
•Key Math- Revised
•Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational Battery- Revised:
Achievement Tests
•Peabody Individual Achievement Test- Revised (PIAT-R)