In the 19th Century. Examine the documents that follow
and discuss Western views regarding China and the
Chinese in the
19th century. What additional documents could you
use to answer this question?
China: The Crisis Within
 1700s to mid-1800s = massive

population growth
 Results:
 Growing pressure on the
land
 Smaller farms for China’s
huge peasant population
 Unemployment
 Poverty
 Starvation and misery
Poor Chinese Cat Merchants, 1843
(Sold for food, not as pets!)
China: The Crisis Within
 China’s centralized government
not expand to cope with this
did
growing population
 Became unable to effectively
perform many functions
 Tax collection
 Social welfare
 Flood control
 Public security
 Result = central government lost
power to officials in the provinces
and local landowners
 Many were corrupt
 Treated the peasants very
harshly
The Taiping Rebellion
 Led to many peasant
rebellions and uprisings 
 1850 – 1864 = Taiping
Rebellion
 Leaders believed in a unique
form of Christianity
 Leading figure = Hong
Xiuquan = proclaimed to be
the younger brother of Jesus
 Sent to establish a
“heavenly kingdom of
great peace” in the world
Painting of the Battle of Sanhe
A major engagement of the Taiping Rebellion
Goals of the Taiping
Rebellion
 Abolition of private property

 Radical redistribution of land
Taiping Soldiers Outside Shanghai
 Equality of men and women
 End of foot binding, prostitution,
and opium smoking
 Sexually segregated military
camps of men and women
 Expulsion of all Qing dynasty
“foreigners”
 Transformation of China into an
industrial nation with railroads,
health care for all, universal
public education, etc.
The Taiping Rebellion:
 Taiping forces
and followers sweptFailure
Eventual
out from southern China and
established their capital in Nanjing
in 1853
 Uprising eventually failed due to:
 Divisions and indecisiveness
within Taiping leadership
 Inability to link up with other
rebel groups throughout China
 Western military support for proQing forces
 Rebel forces finally crushed in 1864
Painting of the Taiping Rebellion
The Taiping Rebellion:
Effects on
China
 Weakening of the Qing

centralized government
 Disruption and weakening of
China’s economy
 Destruction and devastation
to the land
 Estimated 20-30 million lives
lost
 Continued social instability
Chinese Peasants in the 19th Century
China: Western
 Shifting balance ofPressures
power

between Europe and China
evident in the Opium Wars
 Late 1700s = British began to
grow and process opium in
India and illegally sell the
highly addictive drug to the
Chinese to make up for its trade
imbalance with them
 By 1830 = very profitable
market for British, American,
and other Western merchants
“Factories” where British and
American merchants sold opium in
Canton, China
Chinese/British Trade at
Canton (1835-1836)
Item
British Exports to Canton
British Imports from Canton

Value
(in Spanish dollars)
Opium
17,904,248
Cotton
8,357,394
All other items (ex: iron, tin,
etc.)
6,164,981
Total
32,426,623
Tea
13,412,243
Raw silk
3,764,115
Vermilion
705,000
All other goods (gold,
copper, etc.)
5,971,541
Total
23,852,899
What kind of shape would the British have been in without
opium???
The Opium Trade

 China had several problems with
the opium trade:
 Political problem = Opium was
illegal  it disregarded Chinese
law and led to the corruption of
many Chinese officials who
were bribed to turn a blind eye
to the smuggling
 Economic problem = Massive
outflow of silver to pay for
opium was causing serious
economic decline
 Social problem = Millions of
men and women became
addicted and couldn’t function
as productive citizens
Chinese Opium Den
The Opium Trade
 1836 = Chinese emperor decided to
crack down on opium use

 Millions of pounds of opium seized
Confiscated opium being burned
from traders and destroyed without
compensation
 Western merchants expelled from
the country
 British response = sent naval
expedition to China
 Offended by violation of
property rights
 Wanted to end the restrictive
conditions under which they’d
long traded with China
 Result = 1st Opium War
The First Opium War
 The British = had superior
military might and easily 
won
 Treaty of Nanjing ended
the war in 1842
 Imposed restrictions on
the power of the
Chinese emperor
 Opened 5 ports to
European traders
The Outbreak of the First
Opium War
The Second Opium War
(1856-1858)
 British forces were victorious once
again

 Treaty of Tientsin ended the war in
1858
Painting of the Second
Opium War
 10 more ports opened to foreign
traders
 Foreigners allowed to travel freely and
buy land in China
 Foreigners allowed to preach
Christianity under the protection of
Chinese authorities
 Foreigners allowed to navigate along
and patrol some of China’s major
rivers
 Chinese forbidden from referring to
the British as “barbarians” in official
documents
Further Chinese Military
 1885 = lost to the French
in the SinoDefeats
French War

 Lost territory of Vietnam to the
French
 1895 = lost to Japan in the SinoJapanese War
 Lost territories of Korea and Taiwan
to the Japanese
 By the end of the 1800s = European
powers, Russia, and Japan had all
carved out spheres of influence in
China
 Established military bases
 Extracted raw materials
 Built railroads
Carving Up the Pie of China
French Political Cartoon, 1890s
Spheres of Influence in
China

China: Failed Attempts
 1860s-1870s = “self-strengthening”
at Modernization
policies
implemented to reinvigorate a

traditional China
Nanjing Jinling Arsenal
 Overhauled examination system =
designed to recruit qualified candidates
for official positions
 Support for landlords
 Repair of irrigation systems
 A few industrial factories  producing
textiles and steel
 Coal mines expanded
 Telegraph system initiated
 Creation of modern arsenals, shipyards,
and foreign language schools
The Boxer Rebellion
 European and(1898 – 1901)

Japanese forces
occupied Beijing to
crush the rebellion
 Imposed a huge
payment on China
as punishment
 Clear that China was a
dependent country
under foreign control
Boxer Armies Fighting the Eight-Nation Alliance
(British and Japanese soldiers depicted)
Growth of Chinese
 Late 1890s = educated Chinese began
Nationalism
organizing
groups to examine

China’s desperate situation and



Chinese Political Cartoon
Goal = encourage people to stand up
against Qing dynasty and “sweep” them
out of China

explore alternatives
Frustrated with the Qing dynasty 
foreign and ineffective in protecting
China
Admired Western science and
technology
Admired Western political practices
 Limited authority of the ruler and
wider circles of political
participation
Believed the only thing that could
save China = a truly unified nation in
which rulers and ruled were closely
related
China: Failed Attempts
 Problems with
China’s
“selfat
Modernization
strengthening” program that 
eventually led to its failure:
 Little support from conservative
leaders  feared urban, industrial,
and commercial growth would
hurt the power and privileges of
the landlord class
 New industries = largely
dependent on foreigners for
machinery, materials, and
expertise
 New industries only helped local
authorities who controlled them,
not the Chinese state
China during the time of the SelfStrengthening Movement
Opium Conflict

 Doc 1: British historian and professor Thomas Arnold in a letter to W. W. Hull,
March 18, 1840 – protesting conflict with China over the smuggling of opium.
Note use of phrases – “dreadful guilt,” demoralizing drug,” and “supposed
superiority.” Arnold was a liberal although students probably don’t know that.
POV – educated and logical although emotional in tone; could be influential
and writing to convince Hull that allowing opium smuggling will harm Britain
Unequal treaties

 Doc 2: Treaty of Nanjing (Nanking), 1842 – Official
document, British demands to China after First
Opium War – reparations, open ports, Hong Kong,
etc. POV: sounds friendly but is quite unfriendly –
victor to loser - arrogant; imperialistic – gaining
territory
Influence of textile
industry

 Doc 3: Rich China crepe shawl with embroidered
border, The World of Fashion, July 1854, Plate 1.
Fashion magazine showing latest styles - this one
highlighting Chinese silk. POV – Fashion needs of
rich have no “borders,” see China as source of the
best silk



Doc 4: “Domestic Life of Woman.” Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal 17 (1886): 153154. From an article describing the daily life of Chinese women. Indicates that women
know their place – in the home – and adjust to their position over time. Author indicates
manners and morals are superior to European peasants. Their faults are also noted. POV –
Christian missionary, looking to convert – especially young women, also Victorian – note
the description as favorable with regards to household role

 Doc 5: 'Mrs. Ford', interviewed by the Works Progress Administration (1930s)
recalls her memories from the 1870s. Recalls Chinese immigrants as honest and
industrious. Notes secondary position as immigrants – servants, work tailings
left by white men, butt of practical jokes by whites. POV – sympathetic, student
could point out that at 70 + years of age her memory might be suspect but the
details would refute that; impressed with their work ethic

 Doc 6: “The Natural History of a Chinese Girl” Newspaper article doesn’t really get
into the title. Points out the immense poverty of the mass of people and criticizes
Confucianism (and by inference the Qing government) for not “advancing” and
moving people out of crowded cities to take advantage of vast spaces and resources
of China. POV – Social Darwinist – note references to “advance” and “progress” ;
very critical – perhaps concerned, also interested in commerce – note the audience
and the reference to “advanced political economy” and “world in need of China
today”
Famine as a result of
imperialism?



Doc 7: Woodcut and commentary; Committee of the China Famine Relief Fund, The Famine
in China (London: C. Kegan Paul and Co., 1878). One of a series of woodcuts and
commentary about famine relief for Chinese. Millions died in this famine. POV – concern,
possibly Christian (English), critical of wealthy, somewhat sarcastic
Social Darwin political
cartoons


Doc 8: Political cartoon, Melbourne Punch – Australia imposed a duty (import tax) on
opium in 1856. The idea was to stop use of opium by Chinese although it really became a
source of income for the government. POV – cartoon shows that duty is aimed at Chinese
although many Australians used opium and opium derivatives in “medicines” and
recreationally. Could be called racist – certainly aimed, like document 9, at a specific
ethnicity
Foreign policy


Doc 9: Handbill, Chinese Exclusion Act, United States, 1882 public notice announcing meeting to celebrate
passing of Chinese Exclusion Act which prohibited Chinese immigration for 10 years and which was
subsequently severely restricted until the 1960s. Act was passed as a public reaction to more whites
needing jobs as gold mining became less profitable. POV – economic concerns, could also be called racist
or Social Darwinist, targeted at Chinese specifically.
Who are the figures

 Doc 10: French political cartoon, 1890s – China as a pie being carved
up by European powers and Japan. Note inclusion of Japan. Note
aggressiveness of Germany’s Kaiser and that he is specifically looking
at England’s Queen Victoria. POV – could be seen in different ways –
critical of imperialistic designs of European powers, concern over
international squabbling (growing aggression in Europe), educational
– educating public on international affairs.

More foreign policy

 Doc 11: Open Door Notes, United States Secretary of State John Hay, 1899
Open Door Policy of U.S. to open trade equally throughout China for all
Western powers and Japan. United States did not claim a “sphere of influence.”
Note that it is not critical of commercial imperialism, only exclusionary tactics.
POV – concern of being shut out of China trade, political so perhaps influenced
by private commercial interests










Possible Groupings:
Doc 1, 8
Doc 2, 3, 9, 10, 11
Doc 5, 8, 9
Doc 4, 5
Doc 6, 7
Doc 4, 6, 8
Doc 6, 9
Darwinism)

Opium
Trade although 10 is inferred
Immigrants
Positive qualities
Poverty of people
Critical of characteristics
Less advanced (racism, Social

 Possible Additional Documents:

 Note – documents from Asians probably will not be able to address
that question as the question wants Western views of China and
Chinese. Note also that two documents were either written by or
addressed to missionaries

 English merchant – willingness to trade drugs to make profit
 Pope – attempts to gain ground in converting to Catholicism
 British naval officer – overextended, superiority over Chinese
 Church (Protestant or Catholic) asking for missionaries – reasons
why
 Western art collector – Chinese art and porcelain becomes very
popular in 19th century


 Possible Thesis:

 Europeans and Americans held mixed views of
the Chinese during the nineteenth century
vacillating between wanting their valuable trade, but
also wanting to take advantage of them, and to
exclude them from Western homelands because of
racism