England and Constitutionalism James VI (King of Scotland) becomes James I of England in 1603 (upon Elizabeth I death) Believed in absolute monarchy “a deo rex, a rege lex: King’s power restricted due to Magna Carta & Parliament Restriction important for 3 reasons: the people once rose up in arms to defend their rights king could not levy taxes w/out consent of people restriction of royal power in administering justice Tudor monarchs had reigned for 100 yrs. Independent of Parliament good economy careful collection of taxes irregular expenditures confiscation of religious property tampering w/currency Parliament held irregular meetings (3-4 weeks a year) Conflict arises: James I extravagant: needs $ but does not empower parliament Parliament refuses $ King requests To raise needed $, James I imposed customs duties grants of monopolies forced loans Parliament protests: James I imprisons leaders of Parliament 1621—Commoners entered Protestation against the King; James dissolves Parliament James I religious tendencies also anger the English By 1625, majority of Parliament was Puritain Charles I (1625-1649) He was to marry Henrietta Maria, sister of Louis XIII of France 1623: Charles jilted by his Spanish fiancé Returns to England; wants war w/Spain Charles I spent all $ and demands more Charles I dissolved Parliament Experiences: difficulties in administration fleet destroyed at Cadiz Defeated by Huguenots in France 1628, Charles I calls 3rd Parliament: In return for funds, must sign Petition of Right: No taxes w/out Parliament’s consent No quartering of soldiers in private homes No martial law in time of peace No arbitrary imprisonment Charles agrees: Parliament also demands Buckingham’s removal—he was later assassinated Parliament dissolved again!! For 11 years: Charles I ruled w/out Parliament revived old feudal dues courts levied huge fines monopolies of wine, salt, soap sold ship money Under William Laud: Catholic restrictions relaxed; Puritan restrictions increased Catholic practices, vestments & dogmas were re-introduced to Anglican Church In Scotland, tried to make Presbyterian church Episcopal 1638: Scottish signed Great Covenant defend their religion; deposed bishops and revolted against Charles I Charles I defeated and forced to call Parliament for funds for an army Short Parliament: only 3 weeks Nothing resolved Charles dissolved it, but desperate for $ to put down rebellion, he calls another Parliament Long Parliament: 1640-1660 John Pym Archbishop Laud and Thomas Wentworth to Tower of London Court of High Commission and Court of Star Chamber abolished No more irregular expenditures King could no longer dissolve Parliament Law required Parliament to meet at least one time every 3 yrs. Granted $ to fight Scots English Civil War (1642-1649) Charles and nobles, landed gentry, Roman Catholics, most Anglicans: Cavaliers Parliamentarians: business classes, farmers, Puritan religious sects: Roundheads, led by Oliver Cromwell Battle of Marston Moor (1644) gave Roundheads control of northern England After victory, Parliament abolished office of Bishop; removed altars; communion rails; allowed smashing of crucifixes, images, stained glass windows New Model Army--Cromwell 1645—Battle of Naseby—New Model army destroyed Cavalier forces 1646—Charles surrendered to Scots Scottish Army invaded England to restore Charles I as king Puritan forces split—smaller group supported by Cromwell’s army Cromwell’s army intimidated Presbyterian Parliament 1648—Battle of Preston Cromwell says Charles must die; executed military coup on Parliament— 143 Presbyterian members purged—known as Pride’s Purge 60 men—all independents, (Rump Parliament) determined fate of England Rump Parliament: sentenced Charles to death as traitor, murderer, public enemy of the people Charles beheaded January 30, 1649 Commonwealth 1649-1660 Officially England becomes republic—no monarchy or House of Lords Cromwell—commander in chief of army, ruled as dictator Rump Parliament did not call for new election 1653, Cromwell dissolved Rump Parliament He becomes military and religious dictator of England, Scotland, Ireland Appoints new members of ‘Legislative Body’ Wrote Instrument of Government—1st modern constitution Cromwell becomes ‘Lord Protector’ for life 1655: Cromwell became military dictator; office becomes hereditary. Successful war against Spain (1656-59) gained Jamaica in West Indies & Port of Dunkirk on the Continent for England Stuart Restoration (1660-1680) Charles II swore to uphold Magna Carta and Petition of Right Nobles paid Charles 100,000 Pounds annually Charles wanted more 1670: Secret Treaty of Dover Charles’ religious policies acts passed against Puritans English saw his favoritism of Catholics 1672, Prince James (Charles II brother) converted to Catholicism Charles issued ‘Declaration of Indulgence’ Rumors spread about Dover 1673: Test Act Tales of ‘Popish’ plot 1679 Exclusion Bill The Exclusion Bill caused much dissent in Parliament, and the two factions split into Whigs—supporters of Parliament, Protestantism and merchant class—motto: life, liberty, property Tories—court faction motto: the king, the church, and the land 1685-1688 James II James II openly Catholic, wants to make England Catholic Tries to create standing army w/Catholic officers King’s right to suspend laws and statutes enacted by Parliament 1687 ‘Declaration of Indulgence’ exempting Catholics and dissenters from punishment for infractions of the laws Appointed Catholics to office in army and civil government 1688: second ‘Declaration of Indulgence’ ordered to be read in all Anglican Churches Glorious Revolution (1688-89) Whigs and Tories extend invitation to Mary and William to “invade” England from Holland and take the throne 1688—William’s armies enter London/James’ armies desert him/he flees to France Early 1689—Parliament offered crown to William III and Mary II jointly, Declaration of Rights Supremacy of Parliament (rulers denied right to make or suspend laws, levy money, or maintain a standing army w/out consent of Parliament) Free elections Freedom of debate for members of Parliament, who would meet frequently Reasonable bail and trial by jury for the people The Bill of Rights (Dec, 1689) additional provisions, including the barring of a Catholic as ruler 1689—Toleration Act granted dissenters freedom of conscience, legal right to worship in public, but tightened restrictions on Catholics 1690—James II forces in Ireland defeated by William III Other Developments to 1715 Lloyd’s of London insurance company founded 1688 Bank of England (commercial bank) founded 1694 London Stock Exchange founded 1698 Mary II dies, 1694 William III ruled alone until his death in 1702 Queen Anne 1702-1714:last of Stuarts Act of Settlement 1702 passed, to ensure succession of crown would pass to German House of Hanover 1707—Act of Union combined Scotland and England into Great Britain Age of Walpole 1714: Hanoverian dynasty came to the throne George I faced challenge to his title Stuart James Edward (16881766) son of James II landed in Scotland 1715 Troops marched southward, but were defeated by George I troops Robert Walpole (1676-1745) Debt in England controlled by South Sea Company Gov’t bonds traded for stock in company Stock price soared; then crashed in 1720 Investors sold holdings; exchanged profits Parliament intervened Under Walpole, parliament honored national debt Saved England’s financial integrity Walpole=England’s 1st prime minister Originator of Cabinet system of gov’t Not chosen by House of Commons Real source of power: personal support of King Ability to handle House of Commons Ironfisted control of government patronage: Bought support for himself/his policies He supplied people jobs, appointments, favor, gov’t contracts Corruption=glue of political loyalty “Let sleeping dogs lie”— peace abroad; status quo home Parliament, 1700’s: House of Commons: not democratic nor representative Members elected from boroughs: only a few were large enough to hold elections Most had few electors Rotten boroughs: Old Sarum— Pitt family Supremacy of Parliament=strong unity British monarch & parliament could raise tax revenues and loans to wage war All Britons paid taxes—no exemptions Bank of England secured credit market Strong finances=cornerstone of British power Freedom of political beliefs—debate in newspapers flourished; speech/association No large standing army Netherlands: UP—led by William of Orange; William III of England Gov’t was republic: States General Provinces had authority States General negotiated w/provinces Holland dominated States General Dutch religiously tolerant Calvinist Reformed Church— official church of nation Catholics and Protestants also lived in UP Haven for Jews All people lived peacefully together Urban Prosperity: enriched themselves and had high standard of living Urban consolidation; transformation of agriculture—drained & reclaimed much land from sea—steady supply of grain—cheap grain = land for meat and dairy; tulips extensive trade and finance; overseas commercial empire; manufacture; shipbuilding; 1675: More people lived in cities than anywhere else in Europe; 60% Decline: began in 18th century Upon William III death in 1702, various local provinces prevented the emergence of another strong Stadtholder Unified political leadership vanished Naval supremacy passed to British Fishing industry declined Dutch lost technological superiority in shipbuilding Countries traded w/each other directly, not using Dutch ships Disunity in provinces hastened economic decline BUT maintained financial dominance Emergence of Prussia 1415—received Brandenburg (Berlin) 1618—inherited duchy of Prussia, but size=weakness— geographical separation Legacy of Frederick William Great Elector of Brandenburg (1640-1688) 1660—E. Prussia independent of Polish rule Monarchy allied w/Junkers 1701: Brandenburg becomes Prussia— recognized in 1713 Treaty of Utrecht Frederick King in Prussia: Built palaces Founded Halle University 1694 Patronized the arts Lived luxuriously 1701: War of Spanish Succession King in Prussia” Becomes Frederick I, passed on title to Frederick William I in 1713 Frederick William I King of Prussia (r.1713—1740) Eccentric One of most effective Hohenzollerns Imposed strict austerity Some jobs abolished Salaries lowered Kabinett all lower officials submitted relevant documents to Frederick William I FWI examined papers, made decisions, issued orders Organized bureaucracy along military lines All departments united: General-OberFinanz-Kriegs-und-Domanen-Direktorium (General Directory) Imposed taxed on nobles Made remaining feudal dues monetary payments Administrative loyalties=duties to monarch as political institution Army grew from 39,000 to 80,000 by 1740 Third/fourth largest army in Europe Each local district (canton) supplied quota of soldiers 1725: FWI wore officer’s uniform One regiment=tallest soldiers in Europe Laws, customs, royal attention made officer corps highest social class in state Junker nobility, army, monarchy=one political unit FWI had best army in Europe; but avoided conflict 1740—FWI dies; son Frederick II (the Great) inherits the throne Sweden: Elevated to rank of first class power by Vasa dynasty Gustavus I, successfully revolted against Danish rule in 1520 Swedish kings, incl. Gustavus Adolphus and Charles XII established absolute rule Sweden’s population and resources insufficient to maintain position during many wars; Sweden becomes second-class power By disastrous Great Northern War, Sweden’s supremacy in Baltic ended 1720-21—Treaties of Stockholm— Sweden lost holdings in Germany (Prussia) 1721—Treaty of Nystadt w/Russia— Sweden lost Estonia, Livonia, Ingria, and part of Finland (including Karelian Isthmus and Viborg) Ottoman Empire Greatest empire in Europe at death of Suleiman the Magnificent, 1566, state of tremendous decline since 1585; Corrupt administration Intrigues among court officials Many wars w/Austria, Russia, Venetians—still possessed extensive empire In Europe, most of the Balkans, most of the Aegean Islands, island of Crete In Near East: modern Turkey, Mesopotamia, area of Syria and Palestine; part of Persia, part of Arabia; island of Cyprus In Africa: Egypt and N. African Coast European holdings were coveted by both Austria and Russia—led to continuous enmity between the two countries Poland Late 10th century, Western Slavic tribes united under Piast family Forced to develop a militaristic state to defend against Prussians, Germans, Bohemians, Hungarians, and later Russians Polish state expanded in all directions: became kingdom by early 11th century Many wars, both internal and external 13th century, Poles came into contact w/Teutonic Knights, who conquered Prussia and blocked Polish access to Baltic Sea 1410—Battle of Tannenberg: Poland defeated Teutonic Knights 1456-66—Poles won other battles and gained access to Baltic Made Teutonic Order a vassal of Polish king Poland allied w/Lithuania, which was three times the size of Poland 1569—Union of Lublin officially merged Poland and Lithuania—it was the strongest state in Eastern Europe Under Jagiello dynasty (13861572) Poland at its zenith After 1572, nobility had gained so much power that it was in fact a ‘royal republic’, with its king elected by the entire nobility By early 18th century, Poland was extremely weak, dominated by Russia Had fought numerous wars w/Sweden and Russia, capped w/disastrous Great Northern War, fought mainly on Polish territory Jealous nobility did not allow authority or national army for effective national security Austria Absolute rule of Hapsburgs, held rule over HRE, but authority was really limited Through warfare, obtained most of Hungary from Ottomans by 1699 1703-1711—revolt of Hungarians forced Hapsburgs to make concessions to Francis II Rakoczy (of Transylvanian nobility) Transylvania joined the rest of Hungary as an Austrian possession Austrian Hapsburgs had acquired Spain’s holdings in the Netherlands (Union of Arras) and Italy by the Treaty of Rastadt (1714) following the War of Spanish Succession Vast land holdings and diverse minority groups were source of weakness, but Austria continually sought more territory: at the expense of the Ottoman Empire Russia Ivan III (1462-1505) ended Mongol domination and laid foundations for Russian State Succeeded by his son Basil III (1505-33 ) 1589—Russian church becomes independent of Constantinople Ivan IV (the Terrible) 1533-84 1549, marries Anastasia Romanova Zakarina 1552—Conquered Tatars at Kazan 1557-1571—Livonian War 1571—Tatars sack Moscow 1578-79—Swedes defeated Ivan in Baltic 1582—Poles defeated Ivan Time of Troubles (1604-13) Ivan’s son Fyodor I (1584-98) Boris Godunov 1591—Fyodor’s brother, Dmitri, age 10, found dead Boris Godunov tsar (15981605) False Dmitri I Poland, and Catholic support 1604—“Dmitri” invades w/force of Cossacks, Polish warriors, peasants 1605, victory at hand and Godunov dies Dmitri crowned tsar—reigned 13 months Prince Shuisky elected tsar (1606-1613) 1670-71—Ivan Bolotnikov, Other Pretenders come to throne Sweden and Poland seized territories Russian people rallied together Novgorod Zemsky Sobor and elected tsar: 16 yr old Michael Romanov Michael not strong tsar, nor was his son Alexis, or grandson Fyodor III; Society up to Peter I Serfdom of peasants firmly established Local self-government disappeared National assembly ceased to meet regularly Russian adventurers crossed Siberia and reached Pacific in 1637 Vast areas of Ukraine won by war w/Poland (1654-67) Cities of Smolensk and Kiev returned—primarily due to Cossacks Bolotnikov’s revolt crushed First of Russo-Turkish wars over Ukraine fought successfully 1677-81 Peter I (the Great) 1689-1725 1) Make power of tsar absolute curbed nobility and enforced state service for all landowners: army, civil service, or courts when Alexis, his son, opposed his policies, he was imprisoned and tortured to death abolished the patriarchate and made Russian church a department of the State 2) To westernize Russia 1) made long tour of w. Europe early in his reign 2) fascinated by western dress, technology, and customs 3) decrees of westernization were only temporarily successful—did not last after his rule (beard tax, forced western dress) 3)Obtain Window on the West 1) successful in Baltic against Sweden (Great Northern War 1700-21) a) 1700: fought Charles XII at Narva—Sweden outnumbered 4by Russians, but Charles XII attacks anyway and wins b) Russia open to invasion; Peter retreats to Moscow c) melts church bells for cannons 2) 1701, Charles XII turns to Poland, defeating Poland and deposing the king and installing his own candidate on the throne 3) 1703—Peter attacks Swedish forts at Naenskance and wins 4) Peter decides to build a city: St. Petersburg, on this land 5) all materials imported; all nobles had to build a palace here 6) 1708—Charles XII returns; Peter adopts a ‘scorched earth policy’ as winter takes its toll on Swedes; 7) 1709-armies meet at Poltava; Swedes outnumbered 5-1 Charles becomes wounded in heel; can’t lead his troops Peter wins and Sweden never strong enough to challenge Russia again. Turks entered war against Russia (Charles sought sanctuary in Turkish territory) From 1710-11; 1714, new coalition of England, Hanover, Denmark, Saxony, and Prussia joined Russia against Sweden and shortly after Charles XII was killed in action (1718) Sweden forced to accept defeat 1721—Treaty of Nystadt: Russia gained Estonia, Livonia, Ingria, part of Finland (Karelian Isthmus and Viborg) from Sweden In wars against Ottoman Empire, Peter not successful Russian expeditions captured Azov on the Black Sea in 1696 In war of 1710-11, Turks captured Peter I and was forced to ransom himself and return Azov to the Turks Russian expansion to Amur River, bordering Manchuria and Siberia was halted by Chinese with Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689) forcing Russia to evacuate its occupied territory