Tool 1:
A word is a preposition (P)
if it is on the “preposition list.”
A word is not a preposition (P)
if it is on the “Never-a–
Preposition List.”
Tool 2:
Prepositions (P) can never have
“a,” “an,” or “the” before them.
Tool 3:
Ask the question “what?” or “whom?”
after a preposition (P). If there is an
answer, the answer is the object of the
preposition (OP). Use your logic to decide
what the answer is.
If there is no answer (no object of the
preposition [OP]), then the word that
looks like a preposition (P) is not a
preposition (P) in that sentence.
Tool 4:
What a word is in a sentence
depends on how it is used in that
sentence. For example, to be a
preposition (P) a word must use all the
preposition (P) tools.
Tool 5:
The object of the preposition (OP) stops at the
end of the whole answer to “what?” or
“whom?” asked after the preposition (P). Use
your own logic to know what the whole answer
is. Go as far as you can to include as much as
you logically can in the whole answer. End the
object of the preposition (OP) after the end of
the whole answer to the question “what?” or
“whom?” after the preposition (P).
Tool 6:
There can be two prepositions (P) in a row.
Ask “what?” or “whom?” after both together.
Tool 7:
A prepositional phrase (PP) is two or more
words that logically belong together. It starts
with a preposition (P) and ends at the end of an
object of the preposition (OP). Use your own
sense of logic to see which words belong
together and where the end of the object of
the preposition (OP) is. The object of the
preposition (OP) ends at the end of the answer
to “what?” or “whom?” after the preposition
(P). In your analysis, put a parenthesis around
the whole PP.
Tool 8:
If there are two or more prepositional phrases
(PP) in a row, you can analyze them as separate
prepositional phrases (PP), or you can analyze
them as one inside the other. Do it the way that
is most logical for you.
Tool 9:
If you don’t know what infinitives (Inf) and
dependent clauses (DC) are, you may analyze
them at this time as prepositional phrases (PP),
using all the prepositional phrase (PP) tools.
Tool 10:
A connector (C) joins two or more of the
same kind of item that comes before and
after the connector (C).
“and” is always a connector (C)
“or” is always a connector (C)
“but” is a connector (C) only when it
means “however”
“but” is not a connector (C) when it
means “except for”
Tool 11:
The parts that are connected by a
connector (C) become a compound:
compound preposition (cP), compound
object of the preposition (cOP),
compound prepositional phrase (cPP).
Number the parts of the compound.
Number parts only when they are in a
compound, which is only when there
is a connector (C) between them.
Tool 12:
The two or more same items in a
compound are always in a list. Every
item in a compound list must make
sense when it is read alone with the
rest of the sentence. Make sure you
know where the compound begins.
Tool 13:
To find the subject (S) and verb (V)
ask, “Who or what is, was, or will be
doing something?” The subject tells
who or what is, was, or will be doing
something. The subject (S) is the whole
answer to “who or what?”
Tool 14:
The verb (V) tells what the subject (S)
is, was, or will be doing. To be a
subject it must have a verb. To be a
verb it must have a subject.
Tool 15:
A subject (S) and its verb (V) must both be
inside or both outside the same
prepositional phrase PP. You will learn more
about this pattern in Chapter 7 where you
will learn about dependent clauses. No
word inside a PP can be used with a word
outside its PP. Words inside a PP can work
only with words inside the same PP.
Tool 16:
Verbs (V) that end in “ing” are called continuing verbs (CV).
They must have a be verb with them. “Continuing” means
the activity of the verb V is continuing over a period of
time. The be helper verb (BH) and its continuing verb (CV)
go together to make a whole verb: BH + CV = V. There are
nine “be” verbs; most of them are be helper verbs (BH):
am, is, are, was, were, will be, been, being, be
Note: There are two other verbs (V) that act like be helper
verbs (BH):
get: get(s), got, will get (He got going quickly.)
keep: keep(s), kept, will keep (She keeps working.)
Tool 17:
Every “be” verb is always a verb. It
is either a “be” helper verb (BH)
with an “ing” continuing verb (CV)
or it is a verb (V) by itself.
Tool 18:
Every subject (S) has number:
It is either singular (s: only one) or
plural (p: more than one). The verb
or helper verb (V or HV) must have
the same number as its subject (S).
This is called “number agreement.”
Tool 19:
There can be only one subject (S)
for each verb (V) and only one
verb (V) for each subject (S)—
unless there is a compound subject
(cS) or compound verb (cV).
Tool 20:
Put a connector (C) between
subject-verb pairs. Put a comma
before the connector (,C ).
Tool 21:
Without a be verb helping it or a subject (S), a verb-like
word ending in “ing” is not a verb (V) in that sentence.
Remember, the be helper verb (BH) must appear to the left
of the continuing verb (CV) it is helping.
If a word ending in “ing” has no subject (S) and no be
helper (BH) to the left of it in that sentence, it is called a
continuing verbal (CVbl). Verbal (Vbl) means it is like a
verb, but it is not a verb (V) in that sentence.
A continuing verbal can be a subject (S) or an object of the
preposition (OP). (This kind of verbal [Vbl] is called a
gerund.)
Tool 22:
A verb (V) can never be a description or
describe the subject (S). A verb (V) is either
a be verb or it tells what the subject is, was,
did or will be doing. Ask, “Does this word
describe the subject or does it tell what the
subject is, was, did, or will be doing?” If it is
a verb-like word that is describing the
subject (S), then it is not a verb (V). It is a
verbal (Vbl) in this sentence.
Tool 23:
Subject and verb are normally in
the order of subject first and then
the verb after the subject (S-V).
There can be words in between the
subject and its verb.
Tool 24:
There are some acceptable exceptions to
Tool 23. Two are in this chapter. Four more
are in Chapter 11.
Tool 24a: Sometimes when “there” or
“here” comes first, the order can be V-S or
HV-S-V.
Tool 24b: In a question the word order can
be S-V, V-S, or HV-S-V.
Tool 25:
The second kind of helper verb is
the root helper verb (RH). The root
helper verb goes with root verbs.
Root Helper Verbs
can could did do does
might may must shall
should will would
Tool 26:
A root helper verb (RH) goes with
a root verb (RV) to make a
complete verb.
Tool 27:
When there is no root helper verb
and no subject, the word that looks
like a root verb might be a root
verbal (RVbl).
Tool 28:
In a command or request, the
subject (“you”) is usually invisible.
There is one—and only one—
invisible subject: you. It is used
only for a command or request.
Tool 29:
In a command or request, if you use a
name or term for the person you are
commanding or requesting something
from, that name or term is not the
subject. That name or term is called
the addressing word (AW). Use
commas to separate the addressing
word (AW) from the rest of the
command or request. The invisible
“you” is still the subject.
Tool 30:
A prestarted verb (PV) must have a have
helper verb in front of it.
Tool 30a:
There are four have helper verbs (HH).
They go with prestarted verbs (PV). A have
helper (HH) and a prestarted verb (PV) make
a complete verb (V). The four have helper
verbs are “have, had, has, and will have.”
Tool 31:
There are two kinds of verbs (V): regular
verbs and irregular verbs.
Tools 31a:
Regular verbs: Both the simple past and
prestarted forms end in “ed.”
Tool 31b:
Irregular verbs: The past and restarted forms
usually do not end in “ed” and are usually
different from each other.
Tool 32:
A prestarted verbal (PVbl) is like a
prestarted verb (PV), but it has no
have helper verb (HH) and no
subject (S).
Tool 33:
A verb (V) is called “active” when
the subject (S) does the verb (V).
Tool 34:
A verb (V) is called “passive” when someone or
something else is doing the verb (V) to the subject
(S). In a passive verb (V), there must always be the
prepositional phrase (PP) “by someone or
something” that tells who or what is doing the
verb (V) to the subject (S).
This prepositional phrase (PP) is either actually
written in the sentence or understood (and
invisible). A passive verb is always a be helper verb
(BH) plus a prestarted verb (PV). This is the only
verb (V) used for a passive.
Tool 35:
When three or four verbs (V) are in a row, any verb
(V) that is between two other verbs (V) is both a
helper verb (HH) and also a main verb (V).
1. The middle verb is the helper verb (BH,
HH, or RH) for the verb (CV, PV, or RV) that comes
after it.
2. The middle verb is the verb (PV or RV) for the
helper verb (HH or RH) in front of it.
Tool 36:
Some subjects (S) and verbs (V) can be
combined into one word by leaving out
one or more letters. An apostrophe (’)
replaces any missing letter(s). These
shortened words are called
“contractions” (con = together;
tract = pull; contraction = pulled
together).
Tool 37:
After the subject (S) and its verb
(V), ask, “whom or what?” The
whole answer is the subject-verb
completer (SVC). It completes the
thought in the subject (S) and the
verb (V). Use your own sense of
logic to decide what the whole
answer is.
Tool 38:
The first word of a subject-verb completer (SVC) is
sometimes a verbal (Vbl). When it is a verbal (Vbl),
it is either a continuing verbal (CVbl) for an action
or a prestarted verbal (PVbl) for a description.
Tool 38a: If the subject-verb completer (SVC) is a
verbal (Vbl) that is a description, use the
prestarted verbal (PVbl).
Tool 38b: If the subject-verb completer (SVC) is a
verbal (Vbl) that is an action, use the continuing
verbal (CVbl).
Tool 39:
The first words of a subject-verb completer (SVC) are
usually not a subject (S) and a verb (V). They are usually
just a subject-like word and a verbal (Vbl).
Tool 39a: However, the subject-verb completer (SVC) can
begin with subject-verb if the SVC starts with one of the
following words.
who whom
whoever whomever
what whatever which whichever
that (by itself, not with another word, not as in “that
book”.
(Sometimes “that “can be invisible.)
Tool 40:
A pronoun is a non-name word (I, you, he, it, they,
etc.) that stands in for or refers to a naming word
or words (for example, Warren, a reader, my
college, the Olympic Games, etc.). These naming
words are nouns. A noun or pronoun can be a
subject (S), an object of the preposition (OP), or a
subject-verb completer (SVC).
Tool 40a: The noun that a pronoun stands in for or
refers to is called the pronoun’s “referent.” It
needs to be close behind the pronoun, and it
needs to be clear that this is the pronoun’s
referent.
Tool 41:
A pronoun can be a subject (S), an object of
the preposition (OP), or a subject-verb
completer (SVC).
Most pronouns have a different form for
when they are a subject (S) or not a subject,
an object of the preposition (OP), or a
subject-verb completer (SVC). The different
forms are called cases.
Tool 41a:
Use the subjective case (SC) when a pronoun is the subject.
Tool 41b:
Use the objective case (OC) when a pronoun is not a subject
(S) but is an object of the preposition (OP) or a subject-verb
completer (SVC).
Tool 41c:
Some pronouns never change their form, so we cannot tell
by looking at them whether they are a subject (S), object of
the preposition (OP), or a subject-verb completer (SVC). To
know what they are we have to see what they are doing in
the sentence.
Tool 42:
When the verb (V) is one of the “be”
verbs, a pronoun SVC has the same
case as the subject (S) because this
SVC and this subject (S) are the
same person or thing.
Tool 43:
Every pronoun and its referent must
be singular or they must both be
plural for number agreement, as in
Tool 18. Also, every pronoun that is
a subject must have the same
number as its verb for number
agreement.
Tool 44:
Clauses and phrases are two main parts or
structures of a sentence.
Tool 44a:
A clause is two or more words that go
together and it always has one (and only one)
subject-verb pair in it. Use your logic to
decide what words go together as the whole
clause.
Tool 44b:
A phrase (like a prepositional phrase (PP)) is
two or more words that go together, but it
never has a subject-verb pair in it. Use your
logic to decide what words go together as the
whole phrase.
Tool 44c:
A prepositional phrase (PP) can be inside a
clause.
Tool 45:
There are only three kinds of clauses:
dependent clauses (DC), independent
clauses (IC), and relative clauses (RC).
Tool 45a:
A dependent clause (DC) (also called a
“subordinate clause”) always starts with
a dependent word (DW).
Tool 45b:
In an independent clause (IC), there is no DW
in front of the subject (S) and verb (V). The
subject(S) and verb (V) are an independent
subject-verb (ISV).
Tool 45c:
There is only one difference between an
independent clause (IC) and a dependent
clause (DC). A dependent clause (DC) always
starts with a dependent word (DW). An
independent clause (IC) never starts with a
dependent word (DW).
Tool 46:
You can identify a dependent word (DW) by
these three tests:
1. It is on the “List of Dependent Words.”
2. When you ask the question “what?” after it,
there is an answer.
3. The answer to “what?” after the dependent
word (DW) includes a subject-verb pair.
Tool 46a: The dependent word “if” is tricky.
“If” can be used for something that isn’t true and
also for something whose truth we aren’t certain
about.
Tool 47:
A dependent clause (DC) at the start
of the sentence has a comma after
it. A dependent clause (DC) in the
middle of the sentence has a comma
both before it and after it. A
dependent clause (DC) at the end of
the sentence has no comma before
it.
Tool 48:
Most dependent clauses (DC) give
extra information that is movable.
They can be moved to other places
and the sentence will still be
grammatically correct. However,
whatever starts a sentence will
seem to be the most important idea
in the sentence to the readers.
Tool 49:
There are never two dependent
words (DW) in a row for the same
subject-verb. Every dependent
word (DW) must have its own
subject-verb in its own dependent
clause.
Tool 50:
The word “that” is a tricky word.
You have to be careful to see how it
is being used because it can be used
in different ways in different
sentences. It can also be used
differently in the same sentence.
Tool 51:
There is only one invisible or understood dependent word
(DW). It is the tricky word “that.” An invisible “that” can
never start a sentence.
Tool 51a: “Whom” can be an invisible or understood
dependent word (DW) like “that” when it is about a person.
Tool 51b: Why is there an invisible dependent word (DW)? It
has to do with the fact that English is a language that keeps
changing. One change is that it is now common in English to
leave out this dependent word (DW) as much as possible.
Some grammar experts even call it “deadwood.” This means
they think we should cut it out because it does not add
anything important to a sentence. But you may use it in your
writing if you want to. Either way is correct. It is your choice.
Tool 52:
After a mental action verb (know, think,
etc.), usually an invisible “that” is the
dependent word (DW) that will follow.
Tool 53:
If you can replace “that” with “this,”
“that” is not a dependent word
(DW) in that sentence.
Tool 54:
When a sentence looks like it has
more than one independent subjectverb pair (ISV), try to add “that”
before each subject-verb pair. If it
makes sense, “that” is an invisible
dependent word (DW) and must be
used as a dependent word (DW).
Tool 55:
There are only four kinds of sentences.
Tool 55a:
Simple Sentences: One independent clause (IC)
without a dependent clause (DC) is a simple
sentence. It has one and only one independent
subject-verb (ISV).
Tool 55b:
Complex Sentences: A sentence with one and only
one independent clause and one or more
dependent clauses (DC) is a complex sentence.
Tool 55c:
Compound Sentence: A sentence is a compound
sentence when it has two independent clauses (IC)
that are separated by a semicolon (;) or one of the
other independent clause separators (ICS).
Tool 55d:
When one or both of the sentences in a compound
sentence is a complex sentence, the sentence is
called a compound-complex sentence. There will be
two independent clauses (IC) and one independent
clause separator (ICS).
Tool 56: For sentences to be
grammatically correct they must
use both parts of this tool:
Every sentence must have at least one
independent clause (IC).
All independent clauses (IC) must be separated
from each other by one of the following eleven
independent clause separators (ICS). These are
the only independent clause separators (ICS).
See Toolkit for descriptions of each ICS.
Tool 57:
To prevent sentence crimes, the dependent
clauses (DC) don’t matter. Only the
independent clauses (IC) matter. You may
have as many dependent clauses (DC) as
you want. But you must use all the parts of
this tool to be sure you have the correct
number of independent clauses (IC).
Tool 57a:
Every sentence must have at least one
independent clause (IC).
Tool 57b:
Every independent clause (IC) must be correctly
separated from every other independent clause (IC)
by an independent clause separator (ICS).
Tool 57c:
Count the number of subject-verb pairs. That’s how
many clauses there are. There can be only
one independent clause (IC) on each side of an
independent clause separator (ICS).
Tool 58:
A sentence crime is committed
whenever a sentence does not have
an independent clause (IC). This crime
is called a fragment.
Tool 59:
If independent clauses (IC) are
not separated at all, it is a
sentence crime. This crime is
called a run-on.
Tool 60:
If there is only a comma
between two independent
clauses (IC), it is a sentence
crime. This crime is called
a comma splice.
Tool 61:
A whole dependent clause (DC)
can be a subject (S), a subjectverb completer (SVC), or an
object of the preposition (OP).
Tool 62:
When you add a subject-verb
pair just to say what someone
is thinking, feeling, or saying,
these are just words alone (WA)
and should not be analyzed
as a subject-verb pair.
Tool 63:
Some dependent words (DW)
are special. They are special because in
some sentences they relate or refer back to
a word that comes before them. The word
that a dependent clause (DC) relates or
refers back to is its referent (or antecedent).
that what whatever which whichever who
whoever whom whomever whose
Tool 64: Some relative words
(RW) can be both a dependent
word and also the subject (S) of
its relative clause (RC):
that who whoever
which whichever
Tool 65:
Sometimes the relative word
(RW) “that” will be invisible the
same as the dependent word
(DW) “that”. Use the visible
form or the invisible form
according to your own choice.
Both ways are correct.
Tool 66:
Do not analyze a relative word
(RW) as a dependent word in a
question that starts with that
relative word (RW).
Tool 67:
Four relative words have case.
Their case depends on how
they are used in the particular
sentence.
Subjective Case
who whoever
Objective Case
whom whomever
Tool 68:
A relative word (RW) that is the
subject (S) of its relative clause
must have the same number as
its referent for agreement of
number. Its verb (V) must also
have the same number.
Tool 69:
A relative clause (RC) must
come immediately after its
referent.
Tool 70:
When the relative clause does not
follow its referent, it is called a
misplaced modifier. This is a very
serious mistake. To correct this
mistake, be sure the relative clause
comes immediately after its
referent.
Tool 71:
Unlike dependent clause (DC) commas,
the relative clause (RC) commas have
nothing to do with location Instead,
relative clause commas have to do
with the importance of the
information in the clause: is the
information essential to know exactly
which person or thing the referent is?
Tool 72: Punctuate compound
lists of three or more subjects
(S), verbs (V), objects of
prepositions (OP), and subjectverb completers (SVC) by this
pattern:
A, B, and C A, B, C, and D
Tool 73:
When there are only two items
in a list, there can be either a
comma or a connector (C)
(“and” “or” “but”) but never
both a comma and the
connector (C).
Tool 74:
To see whether a comma belongs
in a list, try using the word “and”
instead. Wherever you can use
“and” in a list, you may use a
comma. If “and” does not make
logical sense, then you must not
use a comma.
Tool 75:
If even one item in a list has its
own commas, separate all the
items with semicolons (;).
Tool 76:
Adjectives (Adj) describe or
tell about nouns. A noun is a person,
place, thing, feeling, or idea. Nouns
can be subjects, objects of prepositions,
or subject-verb completers.
Tool 76a:
Adjectives (Adj) describe or tell “what kind,”
“how many,” or “how it compares.”
Tool 77:
Adjectives (Adj) usually go
before the word or words they
describe.
Tool 78:
Adjectives (Adj) can also go
after the word(s) they describe.
When they come after the word(s),
they must have commas to
separate them from the rest of
the sentence. They are called
appositives (App).
Tool 79:
Put no comma between the
last adjective (Adj) and the
described word.
Tool 80:
Adverbs (Adv) describe or tell
about verbs (V) and verbals (Vbl).
Tool 80a:
Adverbs (Adv) describe or tell “how,”
“when,” “where,” “how much” about
verbs (V) or verbals (Vbl).
Tool 81:
Adverbs (Adv) can go before or
after the word or between the
words they modify. Choose
what you prefer.
Tool 82:
If there is a subject-verb
completer (SVC) after the verb
(V), the adverbs (Adv) can come
after the subject-verb
completer (SVC).
Tool 83:
When writers want to quote
the exact words said (or told, asked,
stated, etc.) by someone, they must
use quotation marks. When readers
see the quotation marks, they know
the writer is reporting the exact words
someone said. A comma separates the
quoted words from the rest of the
sentence.
Tool 84:
A quotation can come last or
first or be split up.
Tool 85:
There are three steps to
spelling a possessive word
correctly.
Tool 86:
Some pronouns are used to
show possession. These are
called possessive pronouns.
Tool 87:
Possessive pronouns never
have apostrophes.
Tool 88:
Apostrophes are used for only
three purposes:
Tool 88a:
For contractions: I’m (I am), it’s (it is),
they’re (they are)
Tool 88b:
For possessives (except pronoun
possessives).
Tool 89:
Words end in “s” for only five reasons:
Tool 89a:
The word is normally spelled with an “s” at the
end, for example: miss, this, bus.
Tool 89b:
Almost every verb (V) in the present tense with
a singular (s) subject (S) that is not “I” or “you”
has “s” at the end.
Tool 89c:
When the verb (V) is the be verb, it ends
in “s” in the past tense when the subject (S) is any
singular subject (S) except “you.”
Tool 89d:
Many singular (s) nouns become plural (p) by
adding an “s,” “es,” or “ies”:
Tool 89e:
When words are possessive, they usually end in “
’s ” (man’s hat) or “ s’ ” (countries’ customs).
Tool 90:
There are four more exceptions
to the normal word order of S-V.
Tool 90a:
Often after “not…, neither” and “not…,
nor” the order is V-S.
Tool 90b:
Usually between “not only” and “but also”
the word order is V-S or HV-S-V.
Tool 90c:
After “, and so” the word order
is usually V-S. But this is correct only when the
action that the subjects (S) are doing before and
after the “, and so” is the same.
In other words, “, and so” is saying that the
subjects (S) are doing the same thing.
Tool 90d:
Sometimes when a prepositional phrase (PP) is in
front, the word order is V-S. This exception is not
used very often.
Tool 91:
Self-referring case (SRC) pronouns
are used to make it very clear
about whom the writer is writing
or to say that a noun is doing
something for himself, herself,
itself, etc. Self-referring case (SRC)
pronouns can never be the subject
(S) alone.
Tool 92:
Some pronouns are always
singular (s). Other pronouns are
always plural (p). And other
pronouns can be either singular
(s) or plural (p) depending on
the rest of the sentence.
Tool 93:
A pronoun must always have
the same number as its
referent.
Tool 94:
Every subject also has person. This
means the subject is either 1st
person (I, we), 2nd person (you), or
3rd person (he, she, it, they; 3rd
person is also everything and
everyone that is not I, we, you).
Tool 95:
The verb must have the same
person as its subject. This is
called agreement of person.
Tool 96:
Almost every verb in the 3rd
singular present adds “s,” “es,”
or “ies” at the end.
Tool 97:
A verb’s tense tells when
the verb happens.
Tool 98:
Verbs that happen at the
same time must have the same
tense. If they happen at
different times, they must have
different tenses. This is tense
agreement.
Tool 99:
The “be” verb is the most irregular
verb in English. There are three
forms for the present tense
(am, is, are). Also, it is the only
verb with two forms for the past
tense (was, were).
Tool 100:
In a compound subject
connected by “or,” the verb is
singular or plural based on the
number of the last subject
before the verb.
Tool 101:
English verbs have twelve common
tenses. Each tense has a specific
meaning, and writers must choose
the tense that expresses their idea
most accurately. (See Toolkit for
descriptions of the twelve
common tenses.)
Tool 102:
In English there are three articles:
a, an, the.
Tool 102a:
Articles go before almost every specific subject
(S), subject-verb completer (SVC), and object of
the preposition (OP).
Tool 102b:
General things usually do not have
an article.
Tool 102c:
Articles usually go before a person’s title.
Tool 102d:
Articles usually do not go before the proper name of a
person or place.
Tool 102e:
But the article usually does go before
the proper name of a building or a structure.
Tool 102f:
When a nation’s name is actually just a description instead
of a particular name, it must have an article. There is no
article before the specific name.
Tool 103:
Use “the” to mean “this or that specific one”
(singular) or “these or those specific ones”
(plural). “The” is called the definite article
because we use it to mean this/that or
these/those definite, specific noun or nouns.
Tool 103a:
Use “a” and “an” to mean “any” or “some sort of.”
“A” and “an” are called indefinite articles because
indefinite means we don’t know specifically who
or what. “A” and “an” are always only singular.
Tool 104:
Use “a” when the next word starts with a
consonant: b, c, d, f, g, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w,
x, y, z, and sometimes h—but only when the “h”
has an “h” sound. Use “an” when the “h” is silent.
This is to make pronunciation easier.
Tool 104b:
Use “an” when the next word starts with a vowel:
a, e, i, o, and sometimes u—but only when the
“u” sounds like “uh.”
Tool 105:
When a verb-like word comes
after “to,” normally use a root
verbal (RVbl.) These two words
together are an infinitive (Inf.)
Tool 106:
When a verb-like word
comes after any prepositions
(P) except “to,” normally use
the continuing verbal (CVbl).
Tool 107:
Two verbs (V) are in a row
only when the first one is a
helper verb (HV).
Tool 108:
There are exceptions
to tool 107.
Tool 109:
There are different ways
to say what you mean. Be sure
you know exactly what you mean
and what you want to say.