Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development
This is a jigsaw activity. You will be in small groups moving to various stations.
Work together as a group to complete the worksheet for each Perspective. Each
person must complete their own sheet!
Introduction
Lifespan development has produced a number of broad conceptual perspective
representing different approaches to development. Each broad perspective
encompasses a number of theories, explanations, and predictions concerning
phenomena of interest. A theory provides a framework for understanding the
relationships among an organized set of principles or facts.
Part 1: Psychodynamic Perspective – Focusing on the inner person.
1. Who is the main guy of this theory?
2. Draw and label the iceberg diagram of the mind.
3. What are the two basic drives of the unconscious?
4. What is the most basic form of pleasure? What are all other forms of
pleasure?
5. What is the conscious mind made up of? What is the consciousness’s
purpose?
6. Summarize the three main points about the id.
7. Summarize the three main points about the ego.
8. Complete the following chart on defense mechanisms:
Name
What it does
9. What is the main purpose of the superego?
10. How do the superego and id exhaust the ego?
11. What are five problems with Psychodynamic Theory?
The Behavioural Perspective (focusing on the environment)
1. What is the main idea behind the Behavioural Perspective?
2. Who are the three important people in behavioural psychology?
3. Briefly describe the “Little Albert” experiment.
4. In your opinion, what was the most disturbing part of the “Little Albert”
experiment?
5. Make your own diagram of classical conditioning. Make sure you know what
the terms mean!
6. How do we get rid of conditioned responses?
7. What three responses are normally caused by classical conditioning?
8. How is classical conditioning used in treatment?
9. How is Operant Conditioning different from Classical Conditioning?
10. Explain what reinforcement, punishment, and extinction are.
11. Summarize the four types of punishment and reinforcement.
12. Operant Conditioning is used in schools and workplaces. In your group
discuss whether or not this is an effective way to control behaviour. Explain
your answer.
13. What are the five problems of Behavioural Theory?
The Cognitive Perspective
1. How is the cognitive perspective similar to behaviourism? How is it
different?
2. Besides being generally awesome, what is Bandura most famous for?
3. In at least five points, describe the procedure and results for the Bobo doll
experiment. You may summarize the conclusions into one point.
4. Summarize the three points of Social Learning Theory.
5. What is modelling? What four things are required for successful learning
through a model?
6. What does Bandura’s theory teach us about learning through media role
models (people on tv, internet, etc.)?
7. What does Piaget suggest about children’s cognitive development?
8. Piaget’s theory suggests that children go through four stages of cognitive
development. Briefly summarize the four stages in the chart below.
Stage
Age
Key Feature
Test
Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete
Operational
Formal
Operational
9. How has Piaget influenced education? As a group, discuss and explain
whether or not the changes in education were beneficial. Think about your
own education experiences as you grew up in this system.
10. Briefly summarize the two problems of Piaget.
11. What is Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development?
12. What is scaffolding? How is scaffolding used in education?
The Humanistic Perspective
1. What is the number one most important belief in the humanistic approach
regarding human behaviour? Do you agree with this belief? Explain your
answer.
2. Summarize the other five principals of the humanistic approach.
3. Draw Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
4. Why does the hierarchy work?
5. What are the four flaws of the hierarchy?
The Evolutionary Perspective
1. Briefly describe the how behaviour is explained through evolutionary
psychology.
2. Summarize Parental Investment Theory. You can copy the diagram as well.
3. In your group discuss the flaws of Parental Investment Theory. Consider
how attitudes on parenting, gender equality, and relationships have changed.
As a group try to decide if Parental Investment Theory is still applicable to
today’s society.
Note: It is easy to draw on negative stereotypes about men and women in
answering this question. Discuss these ideas, but do not use them as the
sole source of your answer. Likewise, remember to engage in a respectful
discussion of ideas, not specific people or groups of people.
4. Modern Evolutionary Psychology focuses on adaptation and survival skills.
Summarize the eight other areas of Evolutionary Psychology in the chart:
Name
What is it?
How did it help us survive?
Consciousness
Sensation and
Perception
Learning
Emotion and
Motivation
Cognition
Personality
Language
Parenting
5. Summarize the flaws of Evolutionary Psychology.
The Sociocultural Perspective
1. What does Bronfenbrenner suggest about research into child development?
2. According to Bronfenbrenner, how do environments influence our behaviour?
3. Briefly describe the microsystem. As a group come up with an example of a
microsystem’s influence.
4. Briefly describe the mesosystem. As a group come up with an example of a
mesosystem’s influence.
5. Briefly describe the exosystem. As a group come up with an example of an
exosystem’s influence.
6. Briefly describe the macrosystem. As a group come up with an example of a
macrosystem’s influence.
7. Briefly describe the chronosystem. As a group come up with an example of a
chronosystem’s influence.
8. What is a Head Start program? How does Bronfenbrenner’s theory
influence Head Start programs?
The Psychodynamic Approach
Rooted in Freud’s theory, the psychodynamic approach maintains that all behaviour
and mental processes reflect the constant and mostly unconscious psychological
struggles that rage silently within each person. Usually, these struggles involve
conflict between the impulse to satisfy instincts or wishes and the need to play by
the rules in society. Anxiety, depression, and other disorders are outward signs of
this inner turmoil.
Basically your mind works like this:
The unconscious mind is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that
are outside of our conscious awareness. Most of the contents are unacceptable or
unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict. Most of what you do is
driven by your unconscious desires. These desires come down to two basic drives:
pleasure and violence.
Freud believed the most basic form of pleasure was sexual pleasure and all other
forms of pleasure are alterations to sexual pleasure. Essentially, everything you do
is to get (sexual) pleasure. If you can’t get that, you want to fight or destroy what
is denying you pleasure.
So what stops us from being a bunch of violent sexual maniacs?
The part of the brain you are aware of! This is called the conscious and it is
everything that we are aware of. This is the aspect of our mental processing that
we can think and talk about rationally. As your unconscious desires surface, your
conscious brain alters them to make them more appropriate. For example, the
desire for violence may be channeled into sports.
The conscious and unconscious minds are divided into three parts that make up
personality. So picture your mind like this:
The Id
This is the unorganized part of your personality that contains your basic instinctual
drives (known as the four Fs: fighting, fleeing, feeding, and fornication). The id
also contains the libido, which is the primary source of your instincts and is
completely unaware of reality.
For instance, say a hypothetical car cut you off. Your id probably wants you to
speed up, ram your car into the other car, force both cars off the road, and beat
the other driver to a pulp. However, that is obviously illegal.
The id is controlled by the “pleasure principle” which means that everything it does
is to avoid pain and increase arousal (pleasure).
The id has no concept of morality (good vs. bad), consequences, or delayed
gratification.
It wants what it wants and it wants right now… like a bratty child.
The Ego
The ego is the part of personality that we are most aware of and have the most
control of. The ego acts according to the reality principle, meaning it seeks to
please the id’s desires in realistic ways that will be beneficial in the long run.
Remember that hypothetical car that cut you off… well the ego is part of what
stops you from beating the other driver to a pulp. The ego will probably allow you
to curse at the other driver in your car, honk your horn, or maybe give the other
driver the finger (depending on your superego, more on that later).
The ego separates out what is real. It helps us to organize our thoughts and make
sense of them and the world around us. If our ego is well developed, we will have
good common sense and reason.
However, the ego is the rope in a three way tug of war. It has to balance the
desires of the id, the superego, and reality. It’s an exhausting job and can create
anxiety when we do not achieve the right balance. To help us achieve balance, the
ego uses defense mechanisms. Some of these are positive, some are negative.
Defense Mechanisms
1. Denial (ain’t just a river in Africa…)
The best known defense mechanism, it is an outright refusal to face reality
or admit and obvious truth. It protects the ego from things it cannot cope
with, it may save the ego from anxiety or pain, but it is exhausting.
2. Repression (voted second most popular in high school)
When the ego represses something it keeps the information out of our
conscious awareness; however, these memories do not disappear. Instead,
they influence our behaviour. For example, someone who has repressed a
traumatic event like a car accident may not remember the event, but may
refuse to drive.
3. Suppression (the love child of repression and denial)
When the ego consciously forces unwanted information out of our
awareness, it is supressing the information. Suppression is very rare.
4. Displacement (having a bad day?)
Displacement involves taking out our frustrations, feelings and impulses on
people or objects that are less threatening. Displaced aggression is the
most common example of this defense mechanism. So when you are upset
with your teacher, instead of yelling at her, you pick a fight with your little
sibling.
5. Sublimation (the kinder, gentler form of displacement)
Sublimation is similar to displacement, but is much more positive because the
negative or unacceptable impulses are changed into more acceptable
behaviours. For instance, a person having a bad day may take it out on a
punching bag. Another example is a person prone to aggression may play
football or take kick boxing to release the tension. As well, a person prone
to depression may create art or poetry instead of self-harming or abusing
substances. Freud believed that sublimation was a sign of maturity that
allows people to function normally in society.
6. Projection (why are YOU being such a …)
Projection involves taking our own unacceptable qualities or feeling and
finding them or forcing them on other people. For example, if you don’t like
someone, you may say that s/he doesn’t like you. Projection is often done by
males who are severely homophobic; they have homosexual desires, but deny
these desires and accuse everyone else of being homosexual.
7. Intellectualization (emotion switch is in the off position)
This defense mechanism reduces anxiety by thinking about events in a cold,
clinical way. It allows the ego to avoid think about the stressful, emotional
aspect and instead focus only on the intellectual component. For example, a
person who has been diagnosed with a disease may learn everything about it
in order to avoid thinking about the reality of the situation.
8. Rationalization (mind over matter)
The ego explains unacceptable behaviour or feelings in a rational or logical
manner, avoiding the true reasons for the behaviour. Rationalization not only
prevents anxiety, it also protects self-esteem and self-concept. When
confronted by success or failure, people tend to attribute achievement to
their own qualities and skills while failures are blamed on other people or
outside forces. For example, if you do well on a test you may attribute that
success to your intelligence; whereas, if you fail a test you may blame your
failure on your teacher, having to work, etc…
9. Regression (would you just grow up?)
When confronted by stressful events, people sometimes abandon coping
strategies and revert to patterns of behaviour used earlier in development.
Welcome to regression land! For example, a person who gets upset with an
authority figure (like a teacher) may throw a temper tantrum when s/he
doesn’t get his/her way.
The Superego
The superego aims for perfection and is the opposite of the id. Where the id is
driven by basic drives and desires, the superego is driven by society’s beliefs about
morality. It is black and white (only sees things as right or wrong) and wants to
punish every bad thought, desire, or action.
So if the id is the devil on your left shoulder than the superego is the angel on your
right shoulder.
The superego develops in childhood when we start to learn morality (right and
wrong) and the superego is heavily influenced by the morals of our families.
The conflict between the id and the superego causes the ego a great deal of
stress. The ego’s main job is to negotiate between the two without causing anxiety
or pain in the mind. It doesn’t always work and sometimes we feel anxious or guilty
when we give into a desire of the id that upsets the superego.
Remember that hypothetical car that cut you off? Your id wants to kill the driver
and your superego thinks you should feel guilty and be punished for having such a
violent thought. Your ego compromises by letting you give the other car the finger,
but then you feel guilty afterwards. That’s your superego reminding you that your
actions are inappropriate.
Problems to Psychodynamic Theory
1. Low reliability and validity. It’s hard to prove the theories as either correct
or incorrect.
2. Very subjective. It requires a lot of interpretation by psychologists and
patients.
3. Very negative. Humans are awful creatures that would destroy everything is
not for societal rules.
4. Shaped by the times. The theory was developed in the Victorian Era.
Victorian values and attitudes shaped Freud’s theory.
5. Extremely sexist. More on that later…
The Behavioural Perspective (focusing on the environment)
As founded by John Watson the behavioural approach views behaviour and mental
processes as primarily the result of learning. Psychologists who take this approach
see rewards and punishment acting on the raw materials provided by genes,
evolution and biology to shape each individual. So, whether considering a person’s
aggression or drug abuse, behaviourists would look at that person’s learning
history. Since people learn problems behaviours, they can also learn to change or
even prevent them by unlearning old habits and developing new ones.
Behavioural theory focuses on the outer self (behaviours) instead of the mind
because behaviours can be objectively (meaning without interpretation) observed
and studied. The psychologist does not need to subjectively interpret the
behaviour which reduced bias. Quite a bit of the education system is based on
behavioural theory. For example, we leave a class because the bell has rung and
the teacher has dismissed us.
There are three main people to know when learning about the behavioural
perspective: John Watson, Ivan Pavlov, and B.F. Skinner.
John Watson
Watson is considered to be the founder of the behavioural perspective. He first
proposed the perspective in 1913. With his approach he focused on animal
behaviour and its similarities to human behaviour, child rearing, and advertising. It
was his focus on child rearing that got him in trouble…
Watson believed that most human behaviour was learned and therefore desirable
and undesirable behaviours could be controlled using rewards and punishment.
Watson believed that children in particular were very good at learning behaviours
and responded well to rewards and punishment. He wrote many books on child
rearing which encouraged parents to reward certain behaviours and punish other
behaviours. He strongly believed in the nurture side of child rearing and that
parenting was what caused problem children because parents choose the
environment that children are raised in. He demonstrated this with his famous
“Little Albert” experiment.
The “Little Albert” experiment was done in 1920 and is considered one of the most
controversial experiments in psychology. Watson and his assistant taught an 11
month old boy, Albert, to fear a white rat, a white bunny, and almost all fluffy
white objects including Santa Claus (Yes, Santa Claus).
The experiment was shut down when it was discovered that Watson and his
assistant were having an affair. For many years many people wondered what had
happened to little Albert and if the fear Albert learned had been removed. In
2009, psychologists discovered that Albert died at age six from hydrocephalus
(water on the brain).
Watson used classical conditioning to conduct his experiment on Little Albert.
Classical conditioning was created by Ivan Pavlov.
Ivan Pavlov
Pavlov was not a psychologist, but a physiologist who studied the function of living
systems. While studying digestion in dogs he discovered a form of learning called
classical conditioning.
Classical conditioning is a form of learning in which one stimulus, the conditioned
stimulus (CS) comes to signal the occurrence of a second stimulus, the
unconditioned stimulus (UCS). The UCS is usually a biological stimulus such as
hunger or pain that elicits a response called the unconditioned response (UCR).
For example: A dog sees food and feels hungry (UCS), so it starts to drool (UCR).
A child touches a hot stove and feels pain (UCS), so s/he pulls her/his hand away
(UCR).
If a UCS is paired with a CS, then eventually the subject will respond when only
the CS is presented. This means a conditioned response (CR) is created.
Pavlov famously demonstrated this concept using his dogs.
When Pavlov paired the sound of a bell with the sight of food, he found that the
dogs drooled. Eventually, the dogs only needed to hear the bell to start drooling.
The bell had become the CS and the drooling a CR.
Remember this poor guy…
Watson used Classical Conditioning to make Little Albert afraid of white fluffy
objects. When Little Albert interacted with the white rat Watson and his
assistant made loud noises to startle Albert and make him cry.
Eventually, Little Albert only needed to see the white rat to cry. The pairing of a
neutral stimulus (the rat) with an unconditioned stimulus (scary noise) and an
unconditioned response (crying) eventually turned into a conditioned stimulus (the
rat) and a conditioned response (crying).
Classical conditioning often occurs involuntarily without the learner doing anything
and often without awareness.
For example, when the bell rings you know to either go to class or leave class. That
is a classically conditioned response.
How do we get rid of conditioned responses?
If the CS is no longer paired the UCS then extinction occurs. Usually the CS stops
eliciting a CR. For instance, if the dogs no longer get food when the bell rings, they
will stop drooling at the sound of a bell.
Classical Conditioning in humans usually affects fear and disgust responses. For
instance, a person unknowingly has a flu virus (UCS) and eats KFC (CS), when the
person gets sick (UCR) s/he may associate getting sick with KFC and as a result
feels ill whenever s/he eats KFC (CR).
Sometimes attraction is caused by Classical Conditioning. For example, certain
smells (UCS) create feelings of happiness (UCR). If you smell someone’s perfume
(CS) and feel happy, you may find that person more attractive (CR).
Below is an example of how Classical Conditioning is used as a treatment.
Classical Conditioning has been effective at treating substance abuse, violent
tendencies, and phobias.
Classical Conditioning is different from Operant Conditioning which was developed
by B.F. Skinner.
B.F. Skinner
B.F. Skinner developed the concept of Operant Conditioning which is a form of
learning where an individual’s behaviour is modified (changed) by the consequences
of the behaviours. The behaviour may change in form, frequency, or strength.
Operant conditioning is different from Classical Conditioning because Operant
Conditioning deals with voluntary behaviour.
There are three basic components to Operant Conditioning:
1. Reinforcement is a consequence that causes a behaviour to occur with
greater frequency (happens more). For example, if you clean your room your
parents might reinforce the behaviour by giving you an allowance.
2. Punishment is a consequence that causes a behaviour to occur with less
frequency. For example, if you stay out past curfew, your parents may
punish the behaviour and ground you.
3. Extinction is caused by the lack of any consequence following a behaviour.
When a behaviour produces neither favorable nor unfavourable
consequences, it will occur less frequently. Likewise, when a previously
reinforced behaviour is no longer reinforced it leads to a decline in that
behaviour. For example, if your parents stop giving you an allowance for
cleaning your room and stop yelling at you when you don’t clean your room,
you will most likely stop cleaning your room.
Reinforcement and punishment are broken into positives and negatives. Positive
does not refer to good, but rather addition. Likewise, negative does not refer to
bad, but subtraction.
1. Positive reinforcement occurs when a behaviour is followed by a reward,
increasing the frequency of that behavior. For example, if a rat gets a food
pellet (reward) every time it presses a lever (behaviour), the rat is more
likely to press the lever.
2. Negative reinforcement occurs when a behaviour is followed by the removal
of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus, increasing the frequency of that
behaviour. For example, if a rat’s electrified cage is turned off (removal)
when it presses a lever (behaviour) it is more likely to press the lever.
3. Positive punishment occurs when a behaviour is followed by an unpleasant
stimulus creating a decrease in behaviour. For example, a rat receives a
shock if it presses a blue button instead of a red button. Another example
would be getting detention for talking in class.
4. Negative punishment occurs when a behaviour is followed by the removal of a
pleasant stimulus. For example, a rat’s food is taken away if it presses the
blue button. Another example would be having your phone taken away for
using it in class.
As you can probably tell, operant conditioning plays a huge role in our lives. Most
school discipline and parenting is based on operant conditioning. As long as you are
in school you will be subjected to operant conditioning. Even when you leave school
and enter the work place operant conditioning occurs. For instance, if you work
hard you may be promoted which results in a raise. The raise and promotion act as
positive reinforcement. Operant conditioning also occurs in social relationships.
Problems with Behavioural Theory
1. Too much focus on the outer self and does not recognize intrinsic motivation.
2. Does not recognize acts that result in no reward.
3. Most research is based on animal studies. Animal studies are very useful,
but humans are more complex than animals.
4. Animal studies have created some ethical issues (animal abuse).
The Cognitive Perspective (Behaviourism 2.0)
The cognitive perspective focuses on how people take in, mentally represent, and
store information. Cognitive psychologists then relate perception and information
processing to patterns of behaviour. They study such areas as decision making,
problem-solving, interpersonal attraction, aggression, and intelligence. It is the
study of how people perceive, remember, think, speak and solve problems.
It is very similar to behaviourism as the main belief is that behaviours are learned,
BUT it acknowledges that there are internal mental states that influence learning.
These internal states include belief, desire, ideas, knowledge, and motivation.
There are three key people we will study throughout the course who are cognitive
psychologists: Albert Bandura (my favourite psychologist), Jean Piaget, and Lev
Vygotsky. All three of these men have created theories of learning and
development. Piaget and Vygotsky have played a large role in the education system.
Albert Bandura (Oh Canada!)
That’s right! Bandura is Canadian, born and raised in Mundare, Alberta; which is
only one of the reasons why he is awesome. Mundare, Alberta features a large
tribute to kielbasa sausage. When the sausage statue is photographed from a
certain angle it looks like this:
Seriously though, Bandura is famous for his studies on aggression and the influence
of role models on children. It goes a little something like this…
In 1961 Bandura carried out a series of experiments looking at the effects on
children watching an adult behave aggressively. In one experiment, Bandura and
colleagues arranged for an adult to hit/kick a large inflatable doll (Bobo doll) while
a child was in the room; afterwards, the child had an opportunity to play with a
range of toys while the adult was present.
Bandura carried out a similar experiment; in one group he showed a group of
children a film of someone being aggressive to the doll. A control group (one that
is not being tested, but instead provides a norm) watched a non-violent film.
In another experiment, children were shown videos of an adult being rewarded for
being aggressive towards the Bobo doll. Another group was shown a video of adults
being punished for being aggressive toward the Bobo doll.
Bandura discovered that:
1. Children who witnessed adults being aggressive toward the doll were
aggressive during their play.
2. Children who saw adults being awarded for aggressive behaviour were more
aggressive.
3. Children who saw adults being punished for aggressive behaviour were less
aggressive.
4. There were higher levels of aggression in children who saw a model of the
same gender.
5. Boys were more aggressive than girls.
6. The children appeared to be aware of appropriate or inappropriate
behaviour. Some said “ladies shouldn’t do things like that.”
7. When children were asked to reproduce as much of the model’s behaviour as
they could remember, the majority were able to do so accurately.
So what does this mean?
Children learn behaviour through the observation of adult role models without the
use of direct reinforcement or punishment.
From this experiment Bandura created the concept of Social Learning Theory
which states that models are an important source for learning new behaviours and
for achieving behavioural change in institutionalized settings. Bandura proposed
that observational learning can occur in relation to three models:
1. Live model - in which an actual person is demonstrating the desired
behaviour.
2. Verbal instruction – in which an individual describes the desired behaviour in
detail, and instructs the participant in how to engage in the behaviour.
3. Symbolic – in which modeling occurs by means of the media, including movies,
television, internet, literature, and radio. This type of modeling involves a
real or fictional character demonstrating the behaviour.
Bandura believed that behaviours are determined by the environment and the
characteristics of the person who acts as a model and the person observing the
model. Modelling involves several steps:
1. Attention – in order for the person to learn something, they must pay
attention to the features of the modelled behaviour.
2. Retention – we need to be able to remember details of the behaviour in
order to learn and later reproduce the behaviour.
3. Reproduction – we must be able to organize our actions in accordance with
the model behaviour. Practice can improve this.
4. Motivation – we must have some sort of incentive or motivation to reproduce
the behaviour. This motivation or incentive can be external or internal.
Why does this matter?
The news media often claims that violence in people is the result of observing
violent behaviour through music, tv, movies, and video games. The Bandura study is
often used as “proof” of this theory.
The American Psychological Association (APA) does conclude that there is a
correlation (link) between viewing violent media and an increase in aggression;
HOWEVER, the APA also concludes that if a strong role model discourages
aggression in children, then the violent media has little lasting effect.
Likewise, the behaviour will not be reproduced unless there is a motivation or
incentive, so if a strong role model does not provide motivation or incentive to the
child, the behaviour will not be replicated.
Therefore, parenting trumps media.
You will probably notice examples of social learning theory throughout your daily
experiences, whether they are direct experiences or observation of others’
behaviour. For instance, think about how you are trained for a job, you may watch
an instructional video, shadow another employee, or your supervisor may
demonstrate what your roles and responsibilities. All of these are examples of
observational learning.
Jean Piaget (PEE – ah – Jay)
Piaget focused most of his studies on the development of children’s minds. Before
Piaget’s work the common belief was that children were simply not as smart as
adults. Piaget showed that children think differently from adults. According to
Piaget all children have a basic mental structure that grows and develops with age.
His work has heavily influenced early child education and school based education.
In fact, much of the education system you know is based on Piaget’s theories.
Yes, that’s right, if you don’t like school it’s all Piaget’s fault! Well not really,
education has changed since the 1970s and 80s when Piaget’s theories were first
put in place. As well, prior to Piaget’s education revolution schools considered
children to be empty brains that needed to be filled with knowledge. Children were
also expected to behave like mini adults and if they didn’t the punishments were
often humiliating and painful (strapping anyone?).
Piaget developed the Sociological Model of Development. His theory claims that
just as we grow physically, we grow cognitively by going through concrete
developmental stages. Cognitive development is an ongoing reorganization of
mental processes as a result of biological maturation (nature) and environmental
experience (nurture).
Piaget’s theory on childhood development has four stages of development (we will
discuss all of these in WAY MORE DETAIL, as we go through the course):
Each child goes through the stages in the same order and no stage can be missed
out; although, some children progress slightly faster or slower than others.
1. Sensorimotor – from birth to two years. The key feature of this stage is the
child learns object permanence, which is the realization that an object is still
present even if the child cannot see it. The blanket and ball test is used to
determine object permanence.
Despite being covered up, the child knows that the duck is still there.
2. Preoperational – from ages 2 to 7. The key feature is that the child is
egocentric and moves to being sociocentric. Egocentric means that the child
assumes everyone has the same viewpoints, feelings, and opinions as him/herself.
The child moves to the next stage when they realize that this is not the case. The
test at this stage is the three mountains test.
The child is egocentric if they claim that Piaget’s view is the same as his/hers own.
3. Concrete Operational – ages 7 to 11. At this stage children become capable of
logical and rational thought. If the child is less egocentric and more logical they
should be able to complete conservation tasks. This means the child understands
that although the appearance of something changes, the thing itself does not. This
was demonstrated in the water conservation test.
If the child passes the water conservation test they will be able to realize that
containers A and C have the same amount of water.
4. Formal Operational Stage – ages 11+. At this stage children can think about
abstract ideas without using concrete manipulation. Children can do mathematical
calculations, think creatively, and think hypothetically. This stage is tested using
the pendulum task. Children are given a length of string and weights and are asked
to figure out which is more important for determining the speed of swing of the
pendulum. In order to solve the problem children must be able to use the
experimental method and try different weights and lengths of string.
So why is Piaget important?
His theory influenced modern education, especially policy and teaching style.
Curricula is levelled so more concrete concepts are taught in earlier years and
more abstract concepts are taught in later years. Curricula became based on the
concept of readiness. Readiness concerns when certain information or concepts
should be taught. Piaget showed that children are not capable of learning certain
concepts until a certain age range so the concepts should not be introduced until
children are ready.
For example, in Math, problem solving begins with problems that have pictures or
manipulatives. As you get older the Math becomes more language based.
Teaching styles changed from mostly lecture and textbook work at young ages to
more concrete learning like discovery learning, demonstrations, collaboration with
peers, and learning through play. More flexibility was encouraged from teachers
and assessment of children’s ability was also encouraged.
Problems of Piaget
His age ranges are probably too advanced. For instance, most 11 year olds cannot
complete the pendulum test without high levels of frustration; modern experiments
suggest that the pendulum task can be completed around ages 15 to 17.
Many cognitive psychologists find Piaget’s stages of development too rigid and
questioned if the stages were even real. For instance, some psychologists have
found that college age students are not at the formal operational stage.
Although Piaget made reference to the influence of environment on development, it
had little effect on his theories.
Lev Vygotsky (Vi – GOT- ski)
Vygotsky also focused on child development and influenced education. His main
theory was the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).
ZPD is the difference between what a learner (note: it’s not child – this theory
applies to adults as well) can do without help and what he or she can do with help.
In order to move through the ZPD the learner must observe a model. In the case
of children, the child follows an adult’s example and gradually develops the ability
to do certain tasks without help. The model uses scaffolding to help the learner
observe. Scaffolding is when the model first demonstrates the task to be learned,
then the model and the learner complete the task together with the model giving
less and less assistance, and finally the learner completes the task on his/her own.
How does this impact education?
Many teachers are taught to use scaffolding when introducing new activities and
concepts. In fact, you will probably see examples scaffolding every day for the
rest of your school career. If you ask your teachers about it, they may not call the
process scaffolding, but “I do, We do, You do”.
The Humanistic Perspective (I’m special, you’re special, everyone is special!)
According to the humanistic approach, our capacity to choose how to think and act
determines our behaviour. Each person’s unique perceptions – not instincts,
cognitive processes, or rewards and punishments – dictate the choices made.
Humanistic psychologists believe that people are essentially good, that they are in
control of themselves, and that they seek to grow toward their highest potential.
There are six basic principles:
1. Human beings are inherently good.
2. Human beings, as human, are greater than the sum of their parts; therefore,
they cannot be reduced to components. This means we cannot determine
what makes us who we are by just studying one area such as observable
behaviours, hidden desires, or cognitive processes.
3. Human beings have their existence in a uniquely human context, as well as a
universal context.
4. Human beings are aware and aware of being aware – they are conscious of
their consciousness. Human consciousness always includes an awareness of
oneself in the context of other people. For example, we are able to notice
similarities and differences with others in our species.
5. Human beings have choice and the responsibility that comes with the ability
to make choices.
6. Human beings are intentional, have aims and goals, are aware of future
events and consequences, and seek meaning, value, and creativity.
Abraham Maslow
Abraham Maslow created the Hierarchy of Needs and the concept of SelfActualization.
Maslow came up with the Hierarchy of Needs while studying human motivation.
What makes his hierarchy unique to psychology is Maslow studied exemplary people
rather than average or mentally ill people.
Essentially, Maslow found that humans grow mentally and emotionally in stages.
There are basic needs that need to be met before growth takes place. The stages
are from bottom to top:
1. Physiological needs: these are the physical requirements needed for survival.
If these needs are not met, the human body will stop functioning and the
body will die. They are the most important and need to be met first. These
needs consist of breathing, food, water, sleep, homeostasis (body
temperature regulation), digestion, and excretion. Some psychologists have
argued that fornication be included on this list as it guarantees the survival
of the species.
2. Safety needs: If physical needs are satisfied (within reason) safety needs
will become priority. In the absence of physical, mental, and emotional
safety people will experience high levels of stress and shock. When the
traumatic situation is resolved, people may experience post-traumatic stress
disorder. Safety needs include: security of body, employment, resources,
morality, security of family, healthy, and property.
3. Love and Belonging: When the first two levels are met, humans are capable
of forming interpersonal relationships that create feelings of belonging.
Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance in their social
groups and may form maladaptive social groupings (eg: gangs) to achieve love
and belonging needs. Interestingly, this need is one of the most powerful
and at times can override the need for safety. This is often witnessed in
victims of family and spousal abuse. The inability to meet needs at this level
can cause difficulty in forming friendships, intimate relationships, and family
relationships. The love and belonging needs are friendship, family, and
sexual intimacy. Note: sexual intimacy is used to distinguish romantic
relationships from the act of reproduction; which is why sexual reproduction
is sometimes included as a basic need.
4. Esteem: When we feel safe and loved we try to achieve the need to feel
respected. Esteem presents the typical human desire to be accepted and
valued by others. To achieve acceptance people will engage in activities
where they are successful in order to gain respect from others. These
activities give the person a sense of contribution or value. If esteem needs
are not met, people may experience low self-esteem or inferiority complexes
and engage in fame and glory seeking. They may also try to find respect
from undesirable actions. Esteem needs include: self-esteem, confidence,
achievement, respect of others, and respect by others.
5. Self-Actualization: The highest level of the hierarchy is when a person
reaches his/her full potential and the realization of that potential. Maslow’s
definition is very broad and under that definition very few people are selfactualized. Most humanistic psychologists prefer to apply self-actualization
to a specific need or goal such as athletic or artistic achievement, or the
desire to be a great parent. These needs include: morality, creativity,
spontaneity, problem solving, lack of prejudice, and acceptance of facts.
Why the hierarchy works:
- It is one of the first theories of human behaviour that studied average
and exceptional people as opposed to average and mentally ill people.
- It acknowledges that the environment can cause delays or regressions in
behaviour. For example, a person who is thrown in a war zone will regress
on the hierarchy as physiological and safety needs take priority.
Flaws with the hierarchy:
- There is very little research to support the theory.
- Research has been completed has that shows the hierarchy is not really a
hierarchy; rather, the stages exist in a state of flux where one stage
may be dominant over another, but all needs exist and are met. For
example, young adults are usually high on self-actualization (i.e.: they are
motivated to change, create, and achieve), but low on safety needs
(especially financial security). Likewise, older adults have high levels of
security and esteem needs, but low self-actualization possibly because
they do not have the time or resources to reach self-actualization.
- The hierarchy is seen as ethnocentric (dominated by Maslow’s American,
White male perspective) as it focuses on individual achievement, which
would isolate collectivist societies such as China.
- The hierarchy is influenced by biases and attitudes (social desirability)
of Maslow’s period. For instance, sex is classified as two different
needs: a physiological drive and an act of intimacy in a loving relationship.
The problem is that in theory as people move up in the hierarchy they
achieve more desirable needs and motivation. As a result, physiological
sex is “undesirable” and sex as part of a loving relationship is “desirable”
(which would seriously piss off the evolutionary psychologists – more on
that later).
The Evolutionary Perspective (Survival of the Fittest?)
Darwin’s ideas on evolution and adaptation of the species laid the foundation for
the evolutionary approach. The evolutionary approach to psychology holds that the
behaviour of animals and humans today is the result of evolution through natural
selection. Psychologists who follow this approach are concerned with the adaptive
value of behaviour, the anatomy and biology that make it possible and the
environmental conditions that encourage or discourage it.
First some background…
Evolution is the change in genetic (aka inherited) characteristics in a species
(humans) over time.
For instance, two million years ago, hominids (technical term for early man) were
not capable of complex speech. Look at us now! We create new words every year.
Evolutionary psychologists focus on areas like memory, perception, and language
and how these traits, behaviours, and processes evolved through natural selection.
Just as humans physically evolved to look a certain way, evolutionary psychologists
believe that the same theory can be applied to behaviour.
Evolutionary psychologists note that there are behaviours and traits that occur
across all cultures. These universal behaviours and traits are good candidates for
evolutionary adaptations. This means that we all act a certain way because as a
species, the behaviour has benefitted us in the past. Some of these universal
behaviours and traits include: the ability to infer others’ emotions, separate family
and friends from non-family, identify and prefer healthier sexual partners, and
cooperate with others.
Like most psychology, the theory was developed because a bunch of people were
thinking about sex. Specifically, men’s and women’s views and opinions about
sexuality.
The background to Parental Investment Theory:
Millions of years ago, the survival of the species required human reproduction (well
technically it still does). Men are more likely to pass along their genetic code if
they mate with as many women as possible and limit the amount of mates their
women have. That way they are more likely to have many surviving children who are
their children because the women only have one mate.
On the other hand, women are more likely to pass along their genetic code if they
carry a child and raise it to survive. Their genetic code will survive if the limited
amounts of children they produce survive. As a result, women are more successful
if they can choose a mate who is physically healthier and able to provide for her
and the children. Likewise, women will not want to share their mate as the mate’s
resources must then also be shared. This is called parental investment theory and
is seen throughout nature.
In essence:
Men want lots of children, so lots of mates (but the mates cannot be with other
men).
Women need to be provided for, so one mate with lots of resources (who only gives
resources to her).
How does this apply to evolutionary psychology?
Well in the early days of evolutionary psychology (1960s) the common
belief/opinion was that men liked to date many women before settling down and
getting married. On the other hand, women were more likely to want to marry as
soon as possible and have children. These opinions combined with statistics
showing that men are more likely to be adulterous than women, and men experience
more jealousy and insecurity about cheating than women lead to…
THE BIRTH OF EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY!
Yes that’s right. Evolutionary psychologists concluded that even though we
evolved, we use parental investment theory. This lead to the theory that if
parental investment theory is inherited, maybe other behaviours are as well.
Now obviously, parental investment theory has been slammed for being sexist and
antiquated (out of date), so the evolutionary psychologists were smart and
branched out. Most modern evolutionary psychology research focuses on
adaptation and survival skills:
1. Consciousness – This refers to self-awareness, learning, wakefulness and
voluntary action (choosing to act). Humans in comparison to other primates
are more conscious, which improves how we interact with our social and
natural environments.
2. Sensation and Perception – Sensation refers to all the sensory (sight, sound,
touch, taste, and smell) information that our brains register and perception
refers to how the brain uses and filters the information. For example, even
though you are wearing clothes are you consciously aware every time they
brush against your skin? Evolutionary Psychologists believe that sensation
and perception developed to give us an accurate image of our environments
which helped us survive. This would explain why our different parts of our
brain control different sense mechanisms, if one part is injured, the others
can compensate.
3. Learning – Some skills, such as learning to walk and language, are learned at
specific periods, called critical periods, which occur universally across human
cultures. These skills occur without instruction from caregivers.
Evolutionary Psychologists believe these skills are examples of an evolved
program that is stimulated by genetic triggers and environment, so that we
have an opportunity to survive even without a caregiver (although, it would
be a huge struggle).
4. Emotion and Motivation – Motivations direct and energize behaviour, while
emotions provide the positive or negative component to motivation. The
basic emotions of fear, sadness, happiness, anger, and disgust appear to be
universal, suggesting that they are an evolved trait which helped us to
identify friends and enemies. Emotions, whether they are positive or
negative, often motivate group behaviour and control. For example, taking
pride in a community member will motivate others to follow the member’s
example and fall in line.
5. Cognition – In Evolutionary Psychology cognition is internal information
processing, specifically the use of strategies that increase the likelihood of
solving logic problems our ancestors would have faced. For example, we are
exceptionally good at finding patterns; in fact, we often incorrectly find
patterns in random sequences because our ancestors rarely encountered
random events. This may explain why we believe in having streaks of good or
bad luck.
6. Personality – Similar to emotion, there are five basic personality traits that
are found universally across human cultures. These traits are neuroticism,
extraversion, openness to experiences, conscientiousness, and
agreeableness. Evolutionary Psychologists believe that these five traits are
the building blocks for individual personality and environment shapes how
they develop. These universal personality traits would have improved
bonding with our caretakers.
7. Language – Evolutionary Psychologists believe that language is such a
complex process that it is similar to our complex organs. They conclude that
evolution is the only known mechanism for our organ development, so
language must work in a similar fashion. Evidence to support this theory
comes from studies which show that language appears to be innate and
activated through instruction. Language would be highly advantageous to our
ancestors as it would allow them to work together as a team.
8. Parenting – Studies have long shown that humans are innately selfish if it
guarantees self-preservation. We will sacrifice or abandon others if it
increases our likelihood of survival; however, treatment of children and
family is an exception to this observation. In the case of family’s and
children’s survival we are MORE LIKELY to sacrifice ourselves to protect
the young. Evolutionary Psychologists believe this occurs because our
genetic material is passed along in our offspring or shared with family
members. Children are our best chance at passing along our genes, so we will
sacrifice ourselves to protect them.
Problems with Evolutionary Psychology:
1. Testing of theories is very difficult (anyone have a time machine?).
2. There are many assumptions about cognitive, social, and biological evolution
that haven’t been proven yet.
3. The role of the environment is downplayed or not addressed.
4. Some theories (particularly Parental Investment Theory) are viewed as
sexist.
The Sociocultural Perspective (It takes a village…)
Calling attention to the external influences on human behaviour such as the
physical surrounding and social interactions that provide incentives, opportunities
and pathways for growth, Urie Bronfenbrenner began to emphasize the ecological
approach to the study of human development. In Bronfenbrenner’s application of
this concept, human ecosystems include both the physical environment (climate,
space per person, arrangement of dwelling) and social environment (people, culture,
economy). His theory is called Ecological Systems Theory and has heavily
influenced education, particularly Head Start programs in North America.
Urie Bronfenbrenner
Bronfenbrenner is regarded as one of the world’s leading psychologists with an
expertise in the interaction of policy and research on child development. He has
suggested that research on child development needs to take place in natural
settings so theories can be practically applied to real life situations. Essentially,
instead of studying children in clinical settings, children should be studied in their
real life settings like schools, the home, and the community.
Ecological Systems Theory
Bronfenbrenner’s theory states that human development is influenced by different
types of environmental systems. This theory helps us understand why we may
behave differently in different environments. For example, our behaviour when we
are with our family (or friends) may be different from our behaviour when we are
in school or at work.
A more specific example… Miss Phillips can (and will) swear like a drunk pirate when
she is with her friends, but not when she is in school. The different environments
are influencing her behaviour.
The Ecological Systems Theory proposes that we encounter different
environments (systems) throughout our lifespan that may influence our behaviour in
varying degrees.
1. The Microsystem
The microsystem is the most direct environment we have in our lives and the
environment that has the most influence on our behaviour. Your family,
friends, classmates, teachers, neighbours, and other people who have direct
contact with you are in your microsystem. These people are social agents
who directly influence our interactions with them and the environment.
However, we are not passive recipients in this environment; rather, we are
constantly shaping (building, destroying, altering) the microsystem because
of the interactions we have with various social agents.
For example, you are having a bad day because you got into a fight with your
boy/girlfriend at school. Your anger over this interaction can easily effect
and shape your other microsystem interactions. In this case, you may be
rude to your teacher because you are in a bad mood. That action may result
in further action such as getting kicked out of class. The initial interaction
has directly shaped your microsystem for the day.
2. The Mesosystem
The mesosytem involves the relationships between the microsystems in one’s
life. This means that your family experience may be related to your school
experience or your work experience.
For example, if a child has been neglected by his/her parents, the child will
have a low chance of developing positive attitudes towards adults and
teachers which will impact his/hers school performance.
3. The Exosystem
The exosystem is the setting in which there is a link between the context
where in the person does not have any active role, and the context where
the person is actively participating.
For example, a child may be more attached to his/her mother than father.
If the father is sent abroad for work (a setting the child cannot control),
there may be a conflict between the mother and the child’s social
relationship or the bond between mother and child will grow stronger (a
setting the child actively participates in).
4. The Macrosystem
The macrosystem setting is the actual culture of an individual. The cultural
contexts involve the socioeconomic status of the person and/or his family;
his/her ethnicity or race; and whether s/he is living in developed country or
third world country.
For example, compare your environment to someone your age living in
Afghanistan. Your biggest concern may be getting a new car; whereas, the
teenager in Afghanistan may be concerned with the fighting in the country.
5. The Chronosystem
The chronosystem includes the transitions and shifts in one’s lifespan. This
may also involve the socio-historical contexts that may influence a person.
For example, divorce is a major life transition and may affect not only the
couple’s relationship, but also their children. According to a majority of
research, children are negatively affected for the first year of the divorce.
However, over time the family and their interactions become more stable
and agreeable.
A more specific example… Miss Phillips’s parents split up when she was four
and divorced when she was 14. Her parents barely spoke to each other for
the first couple of years, but over time things got better. In fact, four
years ago the whole family got together for family pictures.
Each system contains certain roles, norms (expectations and beliefs about normal
behaviour), and rules which shape psychological development. For example, an
inner-city family will face more challenges than a wealthy family in a gated
community. The inner-city family will have to deal with environmental hardships,
such as crime and squalor; while, the wealthy family will not. As a result, the roles,
rules, and norms will be different creating different psychological profiles. A child
from an inner-city school may be capable of achieving academic success in school,
but is unable to do so because of environmental circumstances. The child may end
up not being “book smart” but “street smart.” The child in the wealthy
neighbourhood may achieve academic success in school, but may be naïve as to how
the real world works. Thus, this child may be “book smart,” but not “street smart.”
As you can tell, the majority of the theory focuses on how the environment
(nurture) influences us. However, biology and genetics do play a role in the theory
as Bronfenbrenner included a person’s own biology as part of their microsystems in
an attempt to create a balance between nature and nurture.
So how does this influence education?
It mainly influences Early Childhood Education, in particular Head Start Programs
which are designed to help children from lower income backgrounds catch up to
middle class children so they can achieve when they enter school.
Essentially, studies have shown that children from lower income families are often
lacking in nutrition, health, social, and education services. All these factors play a
vital role in early development. Since early childhood is a time with many critical
periods (learning to walk, fine and gross motor skills, speech and language, play, and
social interaction) deficits in the above areas can effect a child throughout life.
In fact, being behind in these areas can mean that the child starts out behind and
has difficulty catching up for the rest of his/her life.
Head Start programs seek out to fill the deficits that the child’s microsystem and
mesosystem may be lacking.
While studies have produced mixed results, Head Start Programs will probably be
around for the near future.