INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Jensen Shoes
JENSEN SHOES
• What perceptual biases might have influenced
interactions & behaviors?
• How might an interactive self fulfilling prophecy
have operated in this situation?
• What would Brooks have had to do differently to
result in a more effective working relationship?
• What would Kravitz have had to do differently to
result in a more effective working relationship?
IMPROVING THE
RELATIONSHIP: BROOKS
• Communicate more frequently, directly,
completely and openly before negative emotions
build up.
• Attempt to identify with the broader goals of the
organization and demonstrate this to supervisor.
• Make distinction between biased behavior that is
knowing and that which is unconscious.
• Seek first to understand!
IMPROVING THE
RELATIONSHIP: KRAVITZ
• Verify own open-mindedness by asking herself questions
• Ask more questions rather than assuming she knows what
motivates direct reports or where their skills and interests
lie.
• Look beyond the surface when assessing others abilities
and motivations.
• Manage up as well as down the organization.
• Reflect upon the negative ways that different styles,
personalities and tendencies interact.
• Seek first to understand!
PERCEPTION IMPLICATIONS:
OUR EMPLOYEES
• Leaders must be attuned to:
– The perceived realities of their team
– The fact that perceived and objective realities may not mesh
– The idea that people respond to the perceived reality
• Managers must understand the attributions
employees make.
• No two people in the same situation will perceive
it in exactly the same way.
• Have conflicting parties describe their perceptions.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Personality
PERSONALITY
Unique set of traits and characteristics that
are relatively stable over time and
determine a person’s preferences and
behavior.
Does personality matter?
Implication?
Adjust styles/practices to the personality
Consider personality when assigning jobs/teams
Which dimensions of personality?
Emotional Intelligence
• Ability to detect, express, and manage emotion in oneself
and others.
Other
Self
(Social Competence)
(Personal Competence)
Recognition
of emotions
Self Awareness
Regulation
of emotions
Self-Management
Social Awareness
(Empathy)
Relationship Management
(Social Skills)
Emotional Intelligence
• Some suggest that EI is the best predictor of work
success
• It’s “learnable”
• It’s related to communication, motivation (self and
others), effective leadership
(Hendrie Weisinger, “Emotional Intelligence at Work”
(Jossey-Bass, 1998).
SELF-ESTEEM (SELF CONCEPT)
How we perceive ourselves in terms of our
abilities, competencies, and effectiveness
Global, role-specific, job-based, organization-based
High self esteem is related to higher performance,
commitment, loyalty, and longevity.
What can managers do to foster high self esteem
in their employees?
FOSTERING SELF-ESTEEM
(SELF CONCEPT)
Reaffirm, provide positive feedback
Constructive criticism
Empower/trust
Theory?
Small wins
LOCUS OF CONTROL
The extent to which people believe their
actions determine what happens to them in life.
Internal
External
Why is locus of control important?
Performance?
Incentive Systems?
What can managers do to enhance employees’
locus of control?
LOCUS OF CONTROL
Ensure performance is under employee control
Show Connection
Attributions?
THE “BIG FIVE” (CANOE):
Conscientiousness
The degree to which a person is
dependable, organized, thorough,
perseverant, honest
Most consistent personality predictor of
performance
Also predicts lack of problem behavior
THE “BIG FIVE”: Agreeableness
The extent to which a person is polite, good
natured, flexible, cooperative, trusting.
May predict job performance in jobs…
THE “BIG FIVE”: Agreeableness
The extent to which a person is polite, good
natured, flexible, cooperative, trusting.
May predict job performance in jobs…
 Teamwork; customer relations
THE “BIG FIVE”:
Neuroticism (Emotional Stability)
The degree to which a person is anxious,
depressed, moody, emotionally unstable,
temperamental.
May predict job performance in what type of
jobs?
High stress (e.g., customer relations, public safety)
THE “BIG FIVE”: Openness
The degree to which a person is
imaginative, curious, flexible, open to
change.
May predict job performance where?
Rapid frequent change; Innovation
Training
THE “BIG FIVE”: Extraversion
The degree to which a person is sociable,
talkative, assertive, active, ambitious.
May predict job performance in what type
of jobs?
THE “BIG FIVE”: Extraversion
The degree to which a person is sociable,
talkative, assertive, active, ambitious.
May predict job performance in what type
of jobs?
– Extensive interaction (management, sales)
JUNGS TYPOLOGY
• 16 personality types based on 4 sets of preferences
• Extraversion vs. Introversion
• Sensation vs. Intuition (N)—Perception
– How a person becomes aware of ideas, facts
– Sensation: practical, orderly, precise, unambiguous
– Intuition: future oriented, dislike precision--jump to conclusions,
inspiration
• Thinking vs. Feeling—Judgment
– Making judgments about perceptions
– Thinking: Analytic and logical, impersonal; principles over people
– Feeling: Subjective on the basis of values;
• Perception vs. Judgment
SELF-PERCEPTION
• For each individual, discuss:
– Have you taken the assessment before? If so, were the results the
same?
– Do you agree with the results?
– Do group members agree with your results?
– Were there any differences between self perceptions and
perceptions of others?
– What do the results suggest your strengths and weaknesses are?
• For the group:
– Based on these results, what are some potential strengths and
weaknesses of the group?
– Where might there be potential areas of synergy? Where might
there be potential areas for conflict?
MOTIVATION
MOTIVATION DEFINED
• Willingness to exert high levels of effort to
reach organizational goals.
Good to Great (by Jim Collins)
• “Motivating people is the greatest waste
of time managers engage in. If you have
the right people on the bus, you don’t
need to worry about them being
motivated.”
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
• Everyone is motivated
– Key?
• Two types of motivation
– Intrinsic
– Extrinsic
TYPES OF MOTIVATION
• Extrinsic Motivation:
– "What gets rewarded gets done"
– Based on extrinsic/tangible rewards an/or
punishment
• Intrinsic Motivation:
– "What is rewarding gets done"
– Based on intrinsic/intangible rewards
Motivation Theories
•
•
•
•
•
Need (Maslow & ERG)
Equity
Reinforcement
Expectancy Theory
Goal-Setting Theory
Needs (stage of development)
• Maslow





Self actualization
Self esteem
Social (love)
Safety
Physiological
• Alderfer (ERG)



Growth
Relatedness
Existence
NEED THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
• What are the implications of need-based
theories for managers?
EQUITY THEORY
• People compare their
outcome/input ratio to
that of others
• Conclusions
– Ratios are equal
(equity exists)
– Ratios are unequal
(inequity exists)
RESPONSES TO EQUITY/INEQUITY
• Equity: Maintenance
• Inequity:
– Change Inputs
– Change Outcomes
– Quit
Forms of Justice
REINFORCEMENT THEORY
• Behavior is a function
of consequences
• Behavior that is
rewarded persists
• To increase behavior
– Positive reinforcement
– negative reinforcement
REINFORCEMENT THEORY
• To reduce behavior
– Extinction
REWARDING B
• WE HOPE FOR:
– Long-term growth
– Setting challenging
goals
– Total Quality
– Candor
– Teamwork
• BUT WE
REWARD:
–
–
–
–
Quarterly earnings
Making the numbers
Shipping on time
Reporting good news;
agreeing with the boss
– Individual effort
REINFORCEMENT THEORY
• To reduce behavior
– Extinction
– Punishment
• Immediacy is crucial
• Implications?
EXPECTANCY THEORY
People are motivated to do that which they
believe is possible and valuable
EXPECTANCY THEORY
People are motivated to do that which they
believe is possible and valuable
• Expectancy: Belief that you can perform
• Instrumentality: Belief that performance
will lead to an outcome
• Valence: Value of the outcome
GOAL SETTING THEORY
(Didn’t explicitly discuss)
• People naturally set goals
• Benefits of Goals:
– Increase effort
– Direct effort
– Increase persistence
• Most effective goals are:
SMARTER Goals
(Didn’t explicitly discuss)
• Specific
• Measurable
 Improve conflict management process vs.
 80% reduction in grievances filed by second quarter
•
•
•
•
•
Accepted (participative)
Realistic
Tough (“stretch targets”)
Engaging
Rewarded
Effective Rewards &
Incentive Systems:
• Recognize Individual Differences
• Effective Goal Setting
– Clearly defined measurable targets and expectations
– Realistic stretch
– Collaboratively set
• Remove obstacles/barriers
• Link meaningful/valued rewards to desired behavior
– Those that fulfill strategic objectives; avoid undesirables
• Reward ASAP after behavior
• Check the system for equity, fairness, consistency
• Remember money is only the beginning
NORDSTROMS
• Using theories of motivation & related keys to
effective incentive systems, evaluate the Incentive
system in place at Nordstroms.
– What do you see as its strengths?
– Any concerns/questions regarding the system?
• Are Nordstrom employees pressured
inappropriately by the sales-per-hour system? By
management?
• What (if any) changes would you recommend?
NORDSTROMS
• Using theories of motivation & related keys
to effective incentive systems, evaluate the
Incentive system in place at Nordstroms.
– What do you see as its strengths?
NORDSTROMS
• “This is Your Business. Treat
it Like Your Own Business.”
 Highest sales productivity
 Earnings > $80,000
 Compound growth in sales,
earnings, stores sq. ft.
 Highly, educated workforce
NORDSTROMS
• Using theories of motivation & related keys
to effective incentive systems, evaluate the
Incentive system in place at Nordstroms.
– What do you see as its strengths?
– Any potential concerns?
NORDSTROMS
• “This is Your Business. Treat • “It’s fear that Provides
Great Customer Service”
it Like Your Own Business.”
 Highest sales productivity
 Earnings > $80,000
 Compound growth in sales,
earnings, stores sq. ft.
 Highly, educated workforce
 Local 1001 publicity campaign
 Union complaint with
Washington Dept. L & I
 NLRB charges
 $15 million reserve against
earnings
 shareholder class action suit
 employee class action suit
 Wall Street Journal story
 60 Minutes TV story
NORDSTROMS
• Are Nordstrom employees pressured
inappropriately by the sales-per-hour
system? By management?
NORDSTROMS
ACTIVITY
Drive to another store to pick
up merchandise for a customer
Home delivery
Obtain merchandise from
another department for a
customer
Thank you notes
Merchandise stocking
Store displays
Sales meetings
Inventory count
Record keeping
SELL
NONSELL
NORDSTROMS
• Using theories of motivation & related keys to
effective incentive systems, evaluate the Incentive
system in place at Nordstroms.
– What do you see as its strengths?
– Any concerns/questions regarding the system?
• Are Nordstrom employees pressured
inappropriately by the sales-per-hour system? By
management?
• What (if any) changes would you recommend?
Recommendations
• Eliminate the SPH system?
– Would this be akin to throwing the baby out with the
bath water?
• Modify system to minimize abuse
– Guidelines that no one is to be pressured to
underreport…punish offenders
• Internal controls
–
–
–
–
Personal purchases
Properly credit sales…eliminate sharking
Sales data cannot be altered
Clarify distinction between sell and non sell hours
CONCLUSIONS
Effective incentive systems can be powerful
motivators & focus attention on critical behaviors.
However, performance pressures can cause
participants to engage in undesirable behaviors.
– maximize the statistic in counter-productive ways
– willful distortion
Strong internal controls must be present to prevent
manipulation.
Systems must clearly communicate that explicit
pressure and gaming behavior is unacceptable and
subject to detection and punishment.
• THE NEXT FOUR SLIDES WILL
CONCLUDE MOTIVATION AT THE
BEGINNING OF DAY 3
HERZBERG
• Movement vs. Motivation
• KITA
– - KITA
– - KITA
– + KITA
• What’s wrong with KITA? With movement?
Job design
• Job enrichment (Herzberg)
– Hygienes (salary, relationships, setting...)
–
Motivators (responsibility,
achievement, recognition…)
Dissatisfied
Neutral
Motivated
IMPLEMENTING
CONCEPTS
CORE JOB
DIMENSIONS
Combining Tasks
Skill Variety
Forming Natural
Work Units
Task Identity
CRITICAL
PSYCHOLOGICAL
STATES
Experienced
Meaningfulness
PERSONAL
WORK
OUTCOMES
High Internal
Work Motivation
Task Significance
Establishing
Client
Relationships
Autonomy
Experienced
Responsibility
for Outcomes
of Work
High Satisfaction
with the Work
Vertical Loading
Opening Feedback
Channels
High Quality
Work Performance
Feedback
Knowledge of the
Actual Results of
Work activities
- STRENGTH OF EMPLOYEE’S
GROWTH NEEDS
- KNOWLEDGE & SKILLS
- CONTEXT SATISFACTION
Low Absenteeism
and turnover
Intrinsic Motivation:
From Theory to Application
• Provide Intrinsic Rewards
– Survey of 1,500 employees found that recognition is the most
powerful workplace motivator
• Build intrinsic motivators into employee’s jobs
• Employee Participation and Empowerment