The Age
of
Exploration And Expansion
For thousands of years the major civilizations of the world thrived in isolation from
one another. These civilizations had very little contact with one another, and in many cases
had no knowledge of each other.
This all began to change during dark ages. Both Western Europe, and China began
to send out explorers in an effort to learn about the world around them. These explorers
helped to expand the knowledge of their people.
As a result of their explorations, trade routes opened up between civilizations. Each
nation specialized in certain types of products and goods. These goods would be shipped to
far away nations, in exchange for the goods that they specialized in.
Trade Becomes More Difficult
In the 1300s A.D. trade had become more costly, and more difficult. The Mongol
Empire had offered protection to travelers who carried trade goods. As the Mongol Empire
collapsed, it became too dangerous to travel between Asia and Western Europe using
overland routes. This meant that spices from Asia could only reach Europe by going around
Asia, and through the Italian Peninsula.
These spices were in high demand. They were used by Europeans to flavor their
food, to preserve their meats, to make medicines, and even in perfumes. Yet the cost of
transporting these spices to Europe made them very expensive for the struggling nations
of Western Europe to afford.
These nations began to look at other ways of transporting spices into Western
Europe. Many adventurous businessmen began to look at the sea. If they could find a way
to sail from Europe to Asia over the sea, they could make a fortune.
Factors Leading to Exploration
During the 1400s and 1500s European explorers—inspired by greed (gold), the
desire for glory, and the opportunity to spread Christianity (God), and aided by new
technologies—sailed to many previously unknown lands.
Gold was a hot item that explorers were looking for.
However, it was really wealth, not just gold, that explorers were
looking for. Europe needed gold to fuel the rising banking system.
Europeans also desired spices. Likewise, other natural resources
could be sold be sold for profit (timber, sugar, tobacco, ivory,
silk). Competition was enhanced by the idea of MERCANTILISM.
This belief centered on the fact that there was only so much
wealth in the world, and that a country must have more gold
and wealth than others to be strong!
Glory was a relatively new idea in Europe. It came
out of the Renaissance idea of humanism and the focus on
individual achievement. With the rise of the printing press, the
idea of gaining fame for one’s actions became more possible.
Also, king’s wanted the glory for their countries.
Europeans saw the spread of Christianity as a good
thing. The competition for colonies fueled the race to convert
native peoples to a particular brand of Christianity. The Jesuits were the most active.
Technology Allows Exploration
As civilizations around the world advanced, so did their technologies. For
thousands of years it had been impossible for explorers to travel too far from their
homelands.
Sailors were limited by what they could see.
If they traveled out into the open ocean,
away from land, they would get lost. They
used landmarks along the coast to help them
navigate. Thus they were forced to stay near
the coastlines.
They were also limited by their sailing technology.
Up until now ships had been equipped with square shaped
sails. These sails only allowed explorers to travel in the
same direction that the wind was blowing. If the wind
stopped blowing in the right direction, they had to take
down their sails and either paddle, or wait for the wind to
change again. This made it very dangerous to travel too far
from shore.
Between 1100 A.D. and 1400 A.D. new technologies emerged, which helped to
overcome many of these problems. The astrolabe, which was invented by the Arabians,
helped sailors measure objects in the sky such as stars, planets, the moon, and sun. Using
star charts helped them to then determine their location.
The compass, which was invented by the Chinese, helped them to track what
direction they were traveling. By using an hourglass, they could determine how long they
had been traveling.
Maps also began to improve. For
centuries the maps used by travelers had
been very inaccurate. These maps were
handed down from civilization to civilization,
and were gradually improved upon. By the
A.D. 1400s they were much more accurate.
About this time, map makers began to use
grid lines known as latitude and longitude to
help travelers measure and determine where
they were.
The final invention that allowed
sailors to travel further from home
was that of the triangle shaped sail.
This new type of sail allowed ships to
harness the power of the wind to
travel in any direction, and not just
in the direction that the wind was
blowing. This made it much safer for
explorers to travel away from land.
Portuguese Explorers Survey Africa
Driven by a desire to find an overseas route to India, Prince
Henry The Navigator who was the son of King John I of
Portugal worked tirelessly to advance the exploration efforts
of his father’s kingdom.
Prince Henry brought together mapmakers, astronomers,
and mathematicians to study star charts, and to help
improve methods of ocean navigation. He also funded a
number of important expeditions into the Atlantic Ocean, and down
the west coast of Africa.
By the late 1400s A.D. explorers
from Portugal had discovered new islands,
rivers, trading posts, and even a way to
travel from Portugal to India over water.
Bartholomew Dias
In 1487 a young adventurous explorer by the name of Bartholomew Dias set out
on an expedition to find the southern tip of Africa. Up until now, many explorers from
Portugal had traveled by ship to the western coasts of Africa. But no one had ever found
the Southern tip of this large continent. At this time, no one knew how far South it
extended.
In 1488 Dias and his men arrived at the southern tip of Africa, which was later
named The Cape of Good Hope. Dias’ bravery helped prove that is was possible to reach
Asia by sailing around the tip of Africa.
Vasco Da Gama
Following in the foot steps of Bartholomew Dias, another explorer left Portugal in
1497 hoping to sail around Africa, and reach India. This explorer was Vasco Da Gama.
Da Gama set out with four ships from his homeland in Portugal. Ten months later,
he and his men arrived in Calicut, India. Here they established ties with the leaders of this
city, and attempted to setup a trading partnership.
While their efforts to setup a partnership with Indian traders was not successful, they did
prove once and for all that moving goods over the sea was possible. Vasco Da Gama and
his men returned to Portugal as heroes.
Christopher Columbus
Traveling to India around the southern tip of Africa was
dangerous and difficult. An Italian sailor by the name of
Christopher Columbus proposed finding a new route by sailing West.
Columbus thought that if they sailed West, they would eventually
circle the globe, and arrive in Eastern Asia.
For seven years, Christopher Columbus traveled around Europe looking for
someone who would finance his journey. The monarchs of Europe made fun of him, saying
that it was too risky, and dangerous to attempt such a voyage around the globe.
Finally, Columbus arrived in Spain. For many years,
Spain had been caught up in civil war. As a result,
they were behind much of Europe in their
development. King Ferdinand, and Queen Isabella
were anxious to prove that Spain could be as
powerful and successful as their neighbor Portugal.
In August of 1492 they granted Christopher Columbus the
supplies, men, and ships that he needed to carry out his expedition.
Columbus was given three sailing ships. These ships were named the
Nina, the Pinta, and the Santa Maria.
Columbus’ men were terrified that they would be lost at sea,
and that they would suffer starvation. As the days wore on, these men
began to turn against him. Columbus was forced to agree to turn back,
f they did not find land within three days.
On the night of the second day, just before he would have had to turn
around, land was sighted. Columbus and his men discovered an island
in the Caribbean, which they named Hispanolia. This Island is the
location of the present day nations of Haiti, and the Dominican
Republic.
Columbus did not realize that he had arrived in a new part of the world. He was
convinced that he was in India. For this reason, he called the natives who lived on these
islands the Indians.
Columbus returned to the Americas
three more times. Each time believing that he
was in India. During his life, he never realized
what he had discovered.
Amerigo Vespucci
It was not until 1507 that people began to realize that what Columbus had discovered
was not a new route to India, but instead was a completely new world. The first person
to suggest that this was the case was an Italian explorer by the name of Amerigo
Vespucci. Representing Italian bankers, he traveled to the new World in 1499.
He was the first to realize that a new world was a land separate from Asia. After
reading accounts of Vespucci’s travels, a German mapmaker - Martin Waldseemüller named this new land, ‘America’, in honor of him. The original map measures 34 square
feet.
The Line of Demarcation
Up to this time the two major powers
exploring the world were Spain and Portugal.
These nations worried that their new territories
would be taken by each other, or by others. In
order to protect their new empires these nations
looked to the Pope for help.
In 1493 the Pope drew a line on the
globe cutting the new world in half. This line
was known as the line of demarcation. Any
territory discovered on the East side of the line
was to be controlled by Portugal, while any lands
found on the West side of the line were to be
ruled over by Spain.
In 1494 Spain and Portugal signed a treaty moving the line further West. This
treaty was known as the Treaty of Tordesillas, and divided the new world between these
two powers.
Ferdinand Magellan
In 1519 a Portuguese sailor set sail from Seville, Spain in an effort to sail around
the globe. This expedition was funded by Spain. After Magellan and his 260 men and five
ships reached South America, they began looking for a way through the continent to the
other side. After several months, they finally discovered the Southern Tip of South America,
which is now known as the Straight of Magellan.
As Magellan traveled through these rough waters one of his ships became
separated, and was forced to return to Spain. Another ship crashed on a rocky island.
The three remaining ships traveled for several more months, and finally made it
to the Philippians. Magellan became involved in a local dispute with a tribal king, and was
killed. His remaining crew of 18 men sailed back to Spain, arriving home after being gone
for three years.
This expedition was costly in
both cost of goods, as well as cost of life.
However, it was important, because it was
the first time anyone had managed to sail
around the entire globe. They proved once
and for all that what Columbus had
discovered was indeed a new world. They
also discovered just how large the Earth
really was.
Vasco Nunez De Balboa
In 1500 A.D. a Spanish explorer by the name of Vasco Nunez De Balboa set sail
from Spain, arriving in Columbia, South America several months later.
Balboa and his partner Rodrigo De Bastidas explored the coastline of South
America in search of treasure. Eventually, however, their boat began to leak, and they were
forced to abandon it. This left Balboa without a boat, and without any money.
Balboa attempted to survive by farming the land. He eventually moved further
west with a group of Spaniards, and founded the first European colony in the new world,
known as Santa Maria de la Antigua del Darien. While living in this new village he married a
native, the daughter of a local tribal chief.
Balboa then lead a large group made up of both Spaniards, and natives on an
expedition across the Isthmus of Panama, where he became the first European to see the
Eastern edge of the Pacific Ocean.
Juan Ponce De Leon
Juan Ponce De Leon was the first European to set foot on the Peninsula
of Florida. In 1493 Ponce De Leon sailed from Spain to the new world
as a crew member on one of Christopher Columbus’ ships. Rather than
returning with Columbus, Ponce De Leon chose to remain behind in
Santo Domingo. Here he was made the governor of a small province
known as Higuey.
Ponce De Leon heard rumors of great treasures on the
nearby island of Borinquen, which is the present day island of
Puerto Rico. Using a small army, Ponce De Leon conquered this
island in the name of Spain, and subjected the natives to extreme
cruelty. For a short time, he was named governor of Borinquen, but
after his cruelty became known, Ponce De Leon was removed from
office in 1511.
Ponce De Leon next conquered a small island in the Bahamas known as
Bimini. Ponce De Leon had heard many stories about a fountain of
youth, that would keep an individual young forever, giving them eternal
life. As he searched for this fountain, he discovered a land covered in
flowers. He named this new land ‘Florida’, which means ‘covered in
flowers’ in Spanish.
Pedro Alvares Cabral
After the return of Vasco Da Gama from his expedition to India, Portugal
sought to control the spice trade in the Indian Ocean. Within six months of his return,
they sent a fleet of 13 ships, lead by Pedro Alvares Cabral into the Indian Ocean in an
attempt to control it.
After fighting a bloody battle for control of
Indian trading ports, and for control of the Indian
Ocean, Portugal was successful in its efforts. They
built trading ports, and navel bases along the coasts
of Africa, and Asia, helping to insure that they could
maintain their control in the region.
As Cabral traveled to the Indian Ocean they
stopped along the eastern coast of South America,
where he claimed Brazil for Portugal.
Brazil became an important outpost of the
Portuguese Empire. Here, farmers were able to
produce crops such as cotton, tobacco, and sugar,
which could then be shipped back to Portugal, or traded with other nations.
In order to provide enough labor, slaves were brought in from Africa to help
farm these new crops.
Hernando Cortez
In 1519 an explorer by the name of Hernando Cortez left his home in Cuba in
order to explore Mexico. Cortez was a Spanish conquistador and was convinced that he
could obtain more riches on the mainland, than was possible by remaining on the islands in
the Caribbean.
Cortez and over 500 men arrived in Mexico, and began
traveling towards the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. The Aztec
Empire was wealthy, and in many ways more advanced than
any European nation. However, they did not have horses, nor
did they have guns. The noise of the cannon and the sight of
armored soldiers on horseback filled the Indians with awe and fear.
This gave the Spaniards a huge advantage.
In addition, many of the peoples who had been conquered
by the Aztecs were unhappy about the way the had been treated by
them. The Aztecs were brutal, and often sacrificed the people they
conquered to their gods. As a result, many of these people were
ready to join forces with Cortez and his men to overthrow the Aztec
Empire.
At first the Aztecs did not fight back. They thought that the
Europeans were the fulfillment of an ancient legend that spoke of white bearded gods.
Montezuma II, the Aztec emperor, greeted Cortez
with great courtesy. But soon Cortez heard that the Aztecs
had attacked Veracruz. He promptly seized Montezuma as a
hostage and forced him to pay a large ransom in gold and
jewels. Cortez put to death the Aztecs who had attacked
Veracruz.
The Aztecs revolted against the small force left at
Tenochtitlán and Cortez returned to find his men besieged.
When Montezuma tried to stop the revolt, the Aztecs
showered him with stones and arrows. He either died of his
wounds or was killed by the Spanish. On the evening of
June 30, 1520, called by the Spanish the "dismal night," the Spaniards and their Indian
allies fled from the capital on a causeway, fighting off Aztec attacks. Cortez lost half his
forces.
Cortez built a new army composed of hundreds of Spanish
reinforcements coming to Mexico to join in the conquest
and of thousands of Indians from rebellious tribes.
Cortez's assault on Tenochtitlán began in May, 1521.
Within just a few years, he and his small army were able
to defeat one of the most advanced civilizations of the era,
setting Cortez as the ruler of Mexico, in behalf of Spain.
Francisco Pizarro
A few years after Cortez conquered the Aztec Empire
another explorer named Francisco Pizarro discovered another
wealthy empire in Peru known as the Inca Empire. Leading
about 150 men, Pizarro landed on the northern coast of the
Inca Empire in early 1523. The Spanish told Inca messengers
that they wished only to admire the empire.
Pizarro was able to capture the Incan King, Atahualpa,
and hold him ransom. After the Incas paid Pizarro a ransom of
24 tons of gold and silver for the release of their leader, Pizarro
had Atahualpa put to death, along with other top leaders in the Incan Government.
In February 1536, an army of 200,000 Inca warriors
went to fight the Spanish. But the Inca failed because
most supplies had been used up in a civil war only a
short time before the Spanish arrived. The Inca
retreated into the Andes Mountains. There they
continued to fight the Spanish until 1572, when the
Spanish finally defeated them. The result was that the
Incan Empire also fell.
Two Empires Destroyed
Historians give many reasons for the quick Spanish conquest of the Aztec and
Inca empires.
First , the Spanish weapons were better. They fought with cannon and
crossbow, as well as spears and swords made of iron. The Aztec, with bronze and copper
shields, stone knives, and cloth armor, were no match for them.
Second, the Spanish and the Aztec came from very different cultures. They
had different ways of living and believing. Montezuma believed that Cortes might have
been a god, so he allowed Cortez to walk freely into the capital city. But Cortes saw the
Aztec culture as something evil to be destroyed and replaced by the Christian faith. The
two groups even fought by different rules. The Aztec usually took captives to kill as
sacrifices to their gods. The Spanish, however, fought to kill their enemies on the
battlefield.
Third, the Spanish took advantage of the weakened and rebellious condition of
the Aztec and Inca empires. Many tribes were angry against the Aztec, so they were
willing to guide the Spanish through their territory and help them win their battles.
Tragically, the Spanish then turned and fought those helpful tribes once the Spanish got
what they wanted.
Finally, disease brought by the Europeans killed many Aztec
and Inca. Smallpox and measles, which the Aztec and Inca had never
been exposed to, spread rapidly through their empires. Disease killed
off many in their armies, and killed off many leaders too, leaving the
Aztec and Inca even weaker.
The Inca, on the other hand, did not give up after their capital city was
conquered. They fought the Spanish for 40 more years. This may be
because the Inca rulers took much better care of their conquered tribesgiving them both food and land. The Inca spread their culture, religion, and
language throughout their empire, bonding with their subjects. The Spanish
destroyed temples, artwork, and something the Inca held very sacred - the
mummies of their previous rulers- as well as anything else that represented
Inca culture.
Dutch Exploration
While Spain and Portugal had dominated exploration, other nations also began
to send out explorers. One of these nations was the Netherlands.
In the late 1500s A.D. the Dutch enjoyed one of the highest standards of living
among all the Europeans. They had grown wealthy through trade and commerce.
However, their homeland was small, and there was little room for farming or
manufacturing. The Dutch used their merchant fleet – the largest in Europe - to
distribute Asian imports from Lisbon. As a result of working closely with the Portuguese
they were able to collect valuable
maps and sailing directions. The first
Dutch trading voyage of 1595
returned with a cargo of pepper from
Bantam. In order to maintain their
wealth, the Dutch decided to look at
colonizing new lands.
Dutch leaders founded The Dutch East
India Company to help expand trade
throughout the Indian Ocean. They
established their headquarters on the
island of Batavia in Indonesia, in
1619. They then used Batavia as a
base to further push their control
outward in the region.
Henry Hudson
Henry Hudson originally sailed for an English trading company looking for a
quicker way to get from England to the Far East, by way of the Arctic Ocean – a Northeast
Passage.
In 1609 he moved to Holland and sailed for a Dutch trading company on the
ship named Half Moon. In 1609 he set sail from Amsterdam and headed north, again
trying to find a way through the Arctic to the Far East. In 1621 leaders in the Netherlands
sent him to North America, in search of suitable land for setting up colonies. The Dutch
Government also established The Dutch West India Company to help establish colonies in
North America.
The most important of these colonies was New Amsterdam, which would
eventually become New York. Henry Hudson explored much of the region around New
Amsterdam, and also discovered the Hudson Bay.
Giovanni Da Verrazano
In 1524 France entered the exploration race. They hired an Italian explorer by the name
of Da Verrazano Giovanni to attempt to find a Northern route to India around the
Americas. France provided Verrazano with two ships to set sail and discover the westward
passage to Asia. In January of 1524, Verrazano set sail and arrived at Cape Fear in North
Carolina. He then continued northward, exploring the eastern seaboard of North America
as far as Nova Scotia. He made several discoveries including New York Bay, Block Island
and Narragansett Bay. He was also the first European explorer to name newly
discovered North American sites after persons and places in the Old World.
Without question, Verrazano was the first
European to enter New York bay in 1524.
It was another 85 years, in 1609, that Henry
Hudson, sailing on behalf of the Dutch East
India Company and the individual usually
associated with the discovery, would again
sail a European vessel into the area.
Giovanni explored the east coast of North
America but was unable to find a way through.
Jacques Cartier
Ten years after Verrazano returned to France, another French explorer named Jacques
Cartier set out to find a northern route around the Americas.
Cartier sailed up the St. Lawrence River . He continued on, establishing Mont Real
(Mount Royal) which is now Montreal, Canada. Cartier never found the Northwest
Passage, but his explorations served as a basis for the French claims in the rich St.
Lawrence Valley and much of Canada for the French and led to many future expeditions
by France to Canada.
John Cabot
England also sent out explorers to find new land and wealth in the new world. In
1497 King Henry VI sent a captain by the name of John Cabot to attempt to find
the new world that Columbus had recently discovered. Cabot convinced him that it was
possible to reach Asia on a more northerly route than Columbus had taken, and this route
would be even shorter! The idea that a northern route existed started the search for the
Northwest Passage to the Indies.
Cabot became the first European explorer to discover the mainland of North America (Canada
and the United States). He sailed further north, making the first recorded attempt to find the
Northwest Passage, only to find ice-crusted waters.Cabot explored Newfoundland, Nova
Scotia, and New England, and claimed these lands for Great Britain. It would be
nearly 100 years however, before England was able to establish permanent
colonies.