THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES
Unit 1 – Chapter 2
(Continued)
Symbolic Interactionism
• A psychological theory
• Developed by Charles Cooley &
George Herbert Mead
• Explains how individuals behave based on
their perceptions of themselves and of others
Symbolic Interactionism
• People experience their social world, and
define and interpret their experiences to give
them meaning
• The meanings that people give to their
experience of the world matter, not the social
facts
Symbolic Interactionism
• Only after the mental process of “giving
meaning” do people act
• Mental processes are invisible, only
the actions that follow them are visible
• Symbolic interactionists attempt to
understand the point of view of the actor to
explain the action
3 Basic Concepts
1) An individual develops a self that has 2 parts
a) The “me” that consists of objective qualities
Ex. tall, male, student
b) The “I” that is the subjective awareness of self
Ex. good student, shy, lonely
•
•
The “I” is based on how the individual interprets
feedback from other people
Looking Glass Theory: “I am not what I think I
am. I am not what you think I am. I am what I
think you think I am.”
(Charles Cooley)
3 Basic Concepts
2) People must also “take the attitude of the
other” to be able to anticipate what the
other person will do and decide how they
should respond.
This role taking is the basis for human
interaction.
(George Mead)
3 Basic Concepts
3) People are able to interact effectively only if
they can communicate using a common
language/shared symbols.
Language is the means by which individuals
interpret and give meaning to their
experiences of self and others in order to
interact in relationships.
(George Mead)
Symbolic Interactionism
Example:
• Men Are from Mars,
Women Are from Venus
• By John Gray (1992)
Symbolic Interactionism
Limitation
• Since the researcher perceives and interprets
the actions of the individuals during the
observation, the observations could be
influenced by the researcher’s self-image and
beliefs, which could be inaccurate
Social Exchange Theory
• A psychological theory
• Explains the social factors that influence how
individuals interact within reciprocal
relationships
Social Exchange Theory
• Individuals are constrained by role
expectations
• They act within each role to maximize the
benefits they will receive and to minimize the
costs to themselves
Social Exchange Theory
• Like Symbolic Interactionism, individuals
interpret their experiences of self and others
to determine the benefits and costs
• The benefits and costs of a relationship are
not facts, but are perceptions formed by each
individual
Social Exchange Theory
• Use Social Exchange Theory to explain the
relationship between Hugh Hefner and his
previous girlfriends.
Social Exchange Theory
• Relationships are stable when benefits
balance the costs of the relationship
• Benefits are rewarding because they
meet a perceived need
Ex. Physical/emotional security, access to goods
and services, social approval
• Costs of a relationship are those actions that
meet the needs of another
Ex. Providing physical/emotional support, sharing
goods and services
Social Exchange Theory
• Individuals prefer relationships that are costeffective, benefits outweigh the costs
• Social Exchange Theory is used to explain how
individuals make decisions to form and
maintain relationships that might appear
unacceptable to others
• Some people are offended by the cost/benefit
analysis which could be a limitation of the
theory
Developmental Theories
• Interdisciplinary approach
• Describe patterns of growth and change
throughout the human life span
• As individuals progress through life, they face
role expectations that challenge them to
develop = developmental tasks
• Describe predictable changes in the behaviour
of individuals or families in different stages
and how they adapt to changes
Developmental Theories
• Examine biological, psychological, social and
cultural factors that influence development
• Explain factors that influence differences in
behaviour demonstrated by individuals or
families at different age-stages
• Differences in behaviour could reflect factors that
are typical of those born in the same period of
time = cohort
• Differences could also reflect social change rather
than development
Developmental Theories
Family Life-Cycle Framework
• Applies the developmental perspective to the
life-spans of families
• Families, like individuals, have life spans with
predictable stages = normative events
Ex. Marriage, birth of a child, child leaving home
• At each stage, the family faces specific
developmental tasks that are prerequisites for
moving on to the next stage
Developmental Theories
Family Life-Cycle Framework
• Not all stages will fit all families
• Some families will experience non-normative
events
Ex. Death of a child
• Assumes families at a similar stage of their life
cycles face similar tasks
Conflict Theory
• A sociological and political theory
• Explains how power holds a society together
• Power = ability to control the behaviour of
another
• Conflict exists between groups in society
because of inequalities in power
• Groups compete with one another to meet
their needs
Conflict Theory
• If groups are in competition, then the needs of
all will not be met equally
• Competition can result in exploitation by
individuals in the group with greater power
over the group with lesser power
• Society is organized into groups to divide
people according to their power and to
encourage competition
Conflict Theory
• Unlike Functionalists, Conflict Theorists
question why the structure of society does not
work for everyone
• “Functional for whom?”
Conflict Theory
Karl Marx
• Explained class divisions in Capitalist Societies
in the 19th Century
• Bourgeoisie: those who controlled the means
of production, the wealthy owners of
businesses and factories
• Proletariat: the working people
Conflict Theory
Karl Marx
• The bourgeoisie were a small group in society
with tremendous power because they
controlled the livelihood of the proletariat/the
masses
• Eventually the bourgeoisie will become
smaller and richer and the proletariat will
become larger and poorer
• Gap between the 2 groups will grow
Conflict Theory
Karl Marx
• A society would be stable if people perceived
the dominant group as being more entitled to
the benefits of society
• Marx argued that inequalities need to be
eliminated
Conflict Theory
Friedrich Engels
• Divisions between the sexes in marriage =
Divisions between the classes
• Maintains the class distinction of Capitalism
• Men’s labour outside the home was paid
• Women’s labour inside the home was unpaid
Conflict Theory
Friedrich Engels
• From all classes, men had the most economic
power in the household
• Women had to marry, reproduce and provide
unpaid labour to maintain the family
• Men could maintain their power by continuing
to sell their labour for wages
• Women could not have economic support
without maintaining a marriage
Conflict Theory
Friedrich Engels
• Oppression of women was linked to Capitalism and
would not end until Capitalism was eliminated
Conflict Theory
• Explains the relationship of men and women within
a family as one of exploitation and oppression
• Used for analyzing power and authority within the
family
Feminist Theories
• Developed in the 2nd half of the 20th century
• Explains the impact of sex and gender on
behaviour
• Considers issues of human behaviour from the
point of view of women
• Rooted in Conflict Theory, developed to
separate sex and gender from class
Feminist Theories
• Developed as a reaction to gender biases in
sociology
• Androcentricity: bias that assumes male
experience and behaviour is human/female
experience and behaviour
• Double Standards: biases that apply different
principles for evaluating the behaviour of men
and women
• Like Conflict Theory, change is required so the
needs of all people are met
Feminist Theories
• Explains social inequalities between men and
women from a female perspective
Liberal Feminism:
• discriminatory policies force women into an
inferior social class that restricts their rights to
participate fully in society
• tries to change social policy through political
means
Feminist Theories
Radical Feminism:
• Argues that the differences in power between
men and women result in any male-female
relationship as being exploitative
• Only the development of a separate female
culture can correct this
Feminist Theories
Socialist Feminism
• Based on the assumption that the status of
women is a social inequality rooted in the
sexual division of paid and unpaid labour
• Challenges Capitalism and the Patriarchal
model of the family