Theoretical
Perspectives for
Studying Individuals
& Families
HHS4M
Learning Goals
By the end of this lesson you will
understand eight theoretical perspectives.
 You will be able to compare the theories
to each other.
 You will be able to evaluate the usefulness
of each theory.
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Theories
When scientists explain their observations,
their answers reflect their theories
 Some theories have been used to explain
human behaviour for many years
 Other theories have been revised and
replaced
 Theories are NOT FACTS, just attempts to
explain evidence

MICRO vs MACRO Perspectives

MACRO theories study the interaction
between society and institutions such as
the law, family, politics, etc.

MICRO theories emphasize the
relationships within individual families
Theoretical Perspectives

Functionalism
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Systems Theory
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Symbolic Interactionism
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Social Exchange Theory
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Developmental Theories
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Conflict Theory
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Feminist Theory
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Ecological Perspectives Theory
Structural Functionalism
MACRO Approach
 Attempts to explain how society is
organized to perform required functions
 Focuses on how institutions, such as the
law, political system, and the family
function
 Assumes societies are stable when
structures function to benefit society
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lE8QuBDkkw

Structural Functionalism

Examine the ROLES individuals play to contribute to the
bigger picture
– Status = a specific position within a social group
– Role = the set of behaviours an individual is expected
to demonstrate within a status
– Norm = most prevalent behaviours in that role
Example: An individual with a “father” status is
expected to take on behaviours such as working, child
care and providing to fulfill his role. It is the norm for
a father to work outside the household.
Structural Functionalism

Strengths of Approach:
– Explains how family interacts with society
– Emphasizes family strengths rather than weaknesses
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• Weaknesses/Criticisms of Approach:

-Does not explain why societies or families change
-Change and individual differences are seen as
disruptions
-Only one acceptable form of family rather than many
variations
-Doesn’t deal with interpersonal relationships
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Systems Theory
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MICRO AND MACRO
Attempts to explain how groups of individuals
interact as a system and influence each other
A system is a set of interrelated parts
Family systems have a complex organization
Individuals within the system influence each
other in a reciprocal way
Systems Theory
The family system changes when a
change in one person’s behaviour causes
the behaviour of another to evolve
 The larger family system contains
subsystems (father-child, mother-father)
 A genogram diagram depicts the
relationships within a family system

Genogram
Below is a genorgram of disaese patterns within a
family
Systems Theory

Advantages:
– Explains the behaviour of individuals as inseparable
from the group
– Explains why behaviour continues in destructive
patterns even through generations

Disadvantages:
– Can be difficult to determine how others within the
family are influencing an individuals behaviour
– Overlooks experience of individuals
– Social/Structural factors, such as unemployment are
not taken into consideration
Symbolic Interactionism
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MICRO Approach
A psychological theory that attempts to explain
how individual choose how they will act based
on their perceptions of themselves and of others
People define and interpret their experiences
and give meaning to them
Couples Retreat:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0TmugJoc9Y&feature=related
Symbolic Interactionism
“Me” =objective qualities (tall, male,
student)
 “I” = subjective self (good student, shy,
lonely)
 Role taking = being able to anticipate how
other’s will respond
 Communication requires common language
and use of shared symbols

Cooley’s Looking Glass Self
“I
am not what I think I am. I
am not what you think I am. I
am what I think you think I
am”
Symbolic Interactionism

Advantages
– Emphasizes mental processes and takes individual
perception and interpretations into consideration
– Sense of individual control
– Explains importance of shared symbols and
communication

Disadvantages
– Observations of researchers may be influenced by the
researchers interpretations
– Pays little attention to the impact of wider society and
does not explain society-wide changes in families
Social Exchange Theory
MICRO approach
 A psychological theory that attempts to
explain the social factors that influence
reciprocal relationships
 People act to maximize the benefits and
minimize costs to themselves
 Individuals interpret their experiences in
terms of costs vs. benefits

Social Exchange Theory
Relationships are stable when the benefits
that each person receives balance the
costs of the relationships
 This theory is used to explain how
individuals make decisions to form and
maintain relationships that may be seen as
unacceptable to others

Social Exchange Theories
Weaknesses
-A limitation of this theory is that some
people are offended by the cost/benefit
analysis
-Attempts to explain individual behaviour
and needs and pays less attention to
family dynamics
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Developmental
Theories
An interdisciplinary MICRO approach to
describe patterns to explain growth and
change throughout the human life cycle
– Developmental Tasks = role expectations that
challenge people to develop
– Erik Erikson – people develop individual
identities separate from their parents to make
the transition to adulthood
Developmental Theories
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Examine biological, psychological, social and
cultural factors that influence development
Different factors at different ages
Outline predictable stages marked by normative
events
At each stage there are developmental
prerequisites
One must complete on developmental task to
move onto the next
Developmental Theories

Disadvantages
– Not all stages will fit all families or individuals
– Some families will experience non-normative
events such as death of a child, etc
– Stages make the theory restrictive because
they do not always occur in order, or occur at
all
Conflict Theory
A MACRO interdisciplinary sociological and
political theory
 Explains how power (ability to control the
behaviour of another) holds a society
together
 Conflict exists because of inequalities
 Groups compete with each other to meet
their needs

Conflict Theory
Describes the relationship of men and
women within a family as one of
exploitation and oppression, and is used
for analyzing power and authority within
the family
 Developed in the 19th century when there
were large social inequalities in society
 Disadvantage

– Negative approach
Feminist Theories
A branch of conflict theories
 Developed in the second half of the 20th
century to explain the impact of sex and
gender on behaviour
 Considers issues from the point of view of
women
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Feminist Theories
Argue that change is required so that the
needs of all people are met
 Attempts to explain social inequalities
between men and women from a variety
of female perpectives
 Socialist feminism is based on the
assumption that the status of women is a
social inequality rooted in the sexual
division of paid vs. unpaid labour
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Ecological Perspective
A modern psychological theory that looks at individuals &
families as interlocking systems within society that
influence each other
 Combines aspects of systems theory & developmental
theories
Advantages:
-Explains diversity of developmental behaviour tha can’t be
explained by develpmental theory alone
-Recognizes the influence of others in relationships, but
extends to influences outside family
Disadvantages:
-Less useful for investigating individual situations
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Ecological Perspective
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Individuals & Familes are influenced on 4 levels:
(1) Microsystem: An individual develops
behaviour to meet own needs
(2) Mesosystem: Small groups to which individual
belongs socials indviduals in ways influenced by
society
(3) Exosystem: Socio-economic environment sets
expectations and influences resources available
(4) Macrosystem: Society in which person lives
influences behaviour