Maxs Sanam
Environment
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&
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t policy &
regulation
s
sanitatio
n
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Drylands are generally defined in climatic
terms as lands with limited rainfall.
Drylands are characterized by low (100-600
mm annually), erratic and highly inconsistent
rainfall levels.
The main characteristic of dryness is the negative
balance between annual rainfall and
evapotranspiration rates.
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Rainfall is scarce, unreliable and concentrated
during a short rainy season, with the remaining
period tending to be relatively dry.
High temperatures during the rainy season
cause much of the rainfall to be lost in
evaporation, and the usual intensity of storms
ensures that much of the rainfall runs off in
floods.
Water is not only meagre in absolute terms, but
also scarce for natural and human uses.
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As defined by FAO, drylands are zones falling
between 1-74 and 75-119 growing days,
representing arid and semi-arid lands,
respectively.
the growing period, which is defined as the
period when both water and temperature
permit crop growth
FAO Classification of Drylands
 (Length of growing period in days/year)
1-74
Arid
75-119
Semi-arid
120-180
Dry sub-humid
Semi arid = Semiringkai
 Curah hujan rendah dan eratik (sekitar 700 mm
dengan variasi 20 -50%), suhu tinggi, radiasi
matahari tinggi, evapotranspirasi tinggi,
kesuburan tanah bermasalah, tipe vegetasi
savanah
 Hasil panen pertanian tidak stabil (irregular),
namun produk rumput memuaskan (Goodin &
Northington, 1985).
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Mayoritas penduduk di lahan-lahan Arid dan
semi-arid bergantung pada Pertanian dan pastoral:
Tipe iklim ini memiliki tantangan berupa:
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Pola curah hujan yang tidak menentu;
Hujan turun lebat dan hilang sebagai run-off;
Evapotranspirasi tinggi;
Gulma (weeds) tumbuh lebih cepat daripada tanaman
pangan, berkompetesi untuk mendapatkan kelembaban
(air);
Kandungan bahan organik rendah, kecuali beberapa saat
setelah panen atau penebaran pupuk kandang; dan
Respon yang sangat bervariasi terhadap pemupukan.
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Desertification is defined as "land degradation in
arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting
from climatic variations and human activities".
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Dari semua faktor yang mempengaruhi
produksi ternak, Iklim dan lokasi paling
signifikan.
Karakter2 klimatologi seperti Suhu ambien dan
pola curah hujan mempengaruhi ketersediaan
sumberdaya pastura dan pangan sepanjang
tahun, jenis wabah penyakit dan parasit
hewan.
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Dalam literatur, terdapat banyak tipe
klasifikasi iklim
Klasifikasi paling umum adalah Klasifikasi
Köppen classification that roughly divides
world climates under the following categories:
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Tropical (Group A),
Dry (Group B),
Temperate (Group C),
Continental (Group D),
Polar (Group E),
and Alpine (Group H).
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Jenis iklim ini mempengaruhi produktivitas
ternak:
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Distribusi hujan yang tidak merata selama musim
basah dan kering (tropical),
Periode kering yang panjang selama beberapa tahun
(Dry),
Musing winter dingin yang ekstrim dan panjang
(Temperate),
Summers yang panas dan panjang (Continental),
atau
Winter dengan curahan salju yang signifikan
(Alpine).
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Hewan ternak yang sudah terseleksi oleh kondisi
iklimnya telah mengembangkan strategi dalam
menghadapi variabilitas iklim
Melalui pengaturan suhu tubuh (homeostasis) baik
pada suhu lingkungan tinggi ataupun rendah
melalui sejumlah respon fisiologis;
Atau dengan adaptasi terhadap kekurangan
nutrisi musiman, terutama melalui Seasonal
Weight Loss (SWL) melalui adaptasi prilaku dan
fisiologis atau dengan kemampuan mengatasi
parasit dan penyakit2 endemik.
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Iklim Tropis (Group A) dibagi ke dalam 3
subgrup
Tropical rainforest,
 Monsoon and
 Tropical wet and dry, or Savannah.
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Ketiga subkelompok tsb dicirikan oleh musim
kering dan hujan dengan durasi yang
bervariasi bergantung kepada lokasi geografis
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Cuaca dan iklim dan berpengaruh terhadap produksi ternak
dan produksi agronomik.
Informasi cuaca dan iklim penting untuk menjaga atau
meningkatkan tampilan produksi ternak seperti survival,
pertumbuhan, reproduksi, produksi susu dan daging.
Intervensi manajemen diperlukan tidak saja untuk
memperbaiki potensial genetik ternak/hewan tetapi juga
membantu mengatasi kendala-kendal produksi yang
ditimbulkan oleh faktor iklim, lingkungan fisik, dan ancaman
kesehatan di suatu wilayah.
Kebijakan-kebijakan On-farm biasanya meliputi desain dan
manajemen fasilitas produksi, sedangkan pada tataran yang
lebih luas membutuhkan kebijakan secara nasional maupun
regional.
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Pengetahuan akan bagaimana Stresor
lingkungan (Temperatur ambien, Kelembaban,
Radiasi panas, kecepatan udara) yang secara
langsung dapat mempengaruhi tampilan
produksi ternak, kesehatan dan kesejahteraan
ternak sangat penting!
Konsekuensi tidak langsung dari pengaruh
iklim terhadap kualitas dan ketersediaan
pakan, juga harus dapat diidentifikasi.
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Components of energy use has been studied
and identified.
Figure 12.2 makes it clear that thermal energy
exchanges between the animal and its ambient
environment interact with the residual dietary
energy available for productive purposes.
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Fisiologis hewan berfungsi secara efisien ketika
berada dalam thermoneutral zone
Bila berada di atas atau di bawah zone kritis
tsb, hewan stres dan berpengaruh terhadap
proses produksi.
Temperatur kritis tsb tidak menjadi patokan
tetap bagi setiap species atau tipe hewan, tetapi
dapat berubah sesuai umur dan kondisi
fisiologis hewan.
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Seleksi alamiah maupun buatan pada
lingkungan yang ekstrim dapat memperbaiki
daya adaptasi terhadap kondisi tsb
Terjadi melalui perubahan sifat-sifat fisologis
dan morfologis yang adaptif, kadang melalui
beberapa generasi.
Misalnya, sapi Holstein di zone tropical dan
subtropical memiliki perbedaan dalam hal
karakteristik bulunya (hair-coat) dibandingkan
sapi di daerah temperate.
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Respon spesifik individu hewan dipengaruhi
banyak faktor (internal dan eksternal):
Growth;
 reproduction;
 feed intake and conversion;
 mortality; and
 milk, egg and wool production
telah lama digunakan sebagai parameter performans
hewan dalam respon terhadap faktor-faktor
lingkungan.
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Parameter termoregulator (seperti, ritme suhu
tubuh) merupakan signal terhadap gangguan
aktivitas feeding selama musim panas
Parameter tingkah-laku (Behavioural
measures)
Posture, orientation,
 shelter-seeking,
 huddling or dispersion)
Juga berhubungan dengan respon termoregulator
hewan terhadap lingkungannya.
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In estimating those consequences, it is important to
consider the resilience of animals, within limits, to
maintain normal functions through adaptive and
compensatory capabilities (Hahn, 1982)
Care must be taken in comparing different types of
animals with respect to their performance in a
given environment.
For example, tropical and European breeds of
livestock can hardly be compared one to another
for their growth rate or their reproductive
performance in a tropical environment.
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Livestock native to these countries have been
subject to natural selection in their environments
and high economic performance of animals is not a
choice for nature – it is a human choice, because
many of its aspects can unfairly influence the
animals’ fitness.
As for nature, females must give a milk yield that
corresponds exactly to the quantity needed by
their young: a yield in excess of this quantity can
adversely affect the physiological balance.
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Thus, the low producing ability of native
livestock is not a sign of inferiority, but of a
perfect adaptation to their specific
environment.
On the other hand, the high productive
performance of the European breeds of
livestock is only the consequence of hundreds
of years under artificial selection for a given
purpose
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Animals living in deserts and extremely dry
environments must have an efficient protection
against the loss of water vapour and the
intense solar radiation;
those living in cold regions must be protected
against the loss of body heat;
those in tropical regions must be able to
dissipate heat excess through the skin and from
the respiratory surfaces, and at the same time
they must avoid incoming thermal energy from
the environment.
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Such protective properties depend on the
morphological characteristics of the skin
(colour, thickness, sweat glands, and so on)
and of the hair coat (especially the thickness of
the coat, number of hairs per unit area,
diameter of the hairs, length of the hairs and
angle of the hairs to the skin surface), which
allow the animal to exchange heat with the
environment through the four transfer modes
noted in Table 12.1.
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In certain kinds of animals such as pigs and
water buffaloes, which do not present hair coat
(their skin is scarcely covered by bristles) or
sweating, heat exchange occurs mainly by
convection, although the animals can
eventually moisten their body surface with
water or mud in order to increase heat loss by
evaporation.
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The role of pigmentation and other skin and
hair-coat characteristics in heat transfer by
radiation in animals has been extensively studied
In particular, skin pigmentation is of utmost
importance to protect deep tissues against excess
exposure to solar short-wave radiation in tropical
zones.
In general, it is accepted that dark-coated animals
acquire greater heat loads from solar radiation
than do the light-coloured ones
consequently, light coats have been considered the
most desirable ones for livestock in tropical areas
Windbreaks
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Grazing animals or animals giving birth will seek shelter from
strong winds, especially during cold weather. Structures or trees
can markedly reduce wind speed and can be beneficial to the
survival of exposed animals (especially newborns). Windbreaks
have an importance far beyond these benefits, however, especially
in tropical and subtropical regions.
Shades
Shades and other minimal measures should be thought of as a
form of insurance for protecting farm animals in hot climates. In a
tropical region, the solar irradiance is high even during the winter,
when its value is often the double (1 000 W –2 or more) that
observed in a location at 40° latitude (500 W –2 or less).
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The most effective shades are trees, as they provide protection
from sunlight, combined with beneficial cooling as moisture
evaporates from the leaves.
Sites
 The selection of a site for housing or another intensive
production system is fundamental to minimizing the
effects of local weather. Climatic factors vary with
height above the ground at a specific location and with
varying terrain in a general location. Observations of
the microclimates in a general location will reveal
much variation in thermal conditions resulting from
terrain features, differential exposure, wetlands, rivers,
type and height of vegetation, human activities and
other factors.
 Proper selection of a site to emphasize factors for
enhanced heat dissipation (minimal radiation, air
temperature and humidity, maximal air velocity) will
have long-term protection benefits.
Partially or totally enclosed shelters
 Enclosed shelters are not recommended for
tropical climates because of the decreased
natural air velocity and sanitation. In temperate
regions, partially enclosed shelters can reduce
the thermal radiation received by animals
during hot weather.
Genetic improvement for adaptation
Acclimation and adaptation are different processes.
Animals are considered acclimated to a given
ambient temperature when body temperature
returns to pre-stress
Adaptation, on the other hand, requires modifications
of the genetic structure and is a process involving
populations, not individuals.
Intriguing, however, is the fact that in poultry, the
exposure of chicks to high environmental
temperatures during embryonic development
results in permanent changes in responses to heat
stress in adults
Environmental modification
 Many forms of environmental modification are
available. In hot weather, water can serve as an
effective cooling agent for farm animals,
especially for species that maintain
homeothermy primarily by regulating heat
production (such as swine).
 Direct wetting of animals is often used as an
emergency measure and can be a very effective
protective device.
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For cold weather, the benefits of environmental
modification beyond shelters or windbreaks to
minimize the effects of weather extremes are less clear.
Neonates of all species are vulnerable, and require
some protection for survival.
Growing and mature animals can survive relatively
severe cold if they are adequately fed and disease
problems are absent (Figure 12.6).
Production efficiency can be markedly reduced,
however (National Research Council, 1981).
Controlled ventilation systems in enclosed housing can
use minimal sensible heat to buffer extremes of cold for
improved efficiency, while added artificial heat is
essential for survival or economically beneficial.
Forage and pasture
 the frequent onset of droughts causes considerable
losses of animals due to scarcity of fodder, it is
vitally important to supplement pasture
amelioration with fodder trees and shrubs in order
to minimize such losses (WMO, 2004a).
 These trees and shrubs will not only supply food
for animals, but also serve as a shelter from the
solar radiation and create a microclimate more
favourable for regrowth of grass spoiled by the dry
conditions
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In recent years the increasing use of intensive
livestock production systems has become a source
of solid, liquid and airborne emissions that can be
both a nuisance and environmentally harmful.
The most important greenhouse gases are methane
(CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and carbon dioxide
(CO2).
In spite of the low amount of CH4 in the
atmosphere relative to that of CO2, its importance
as a pollutant is considered to be 21 times greater
than that of CO2, while that of N2O is 310 times
greater (Hartung, 2003).
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(a) Replacement of roughage in the cattle diet
with concentrates;
(b) Development of low-emission production
system facilities, including filters, scrubbers,
covered manure pits and shallow manure
application.
(c) Reduction in the concentration of animals in
intensive production units to the extent
possible, by using more pens and pastures;
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(c) Reduction in the concentration of animals in
intensive production units to the extent
possible, by using more pens and pastures;
(d) Use of feed additives to reduce CH4
emissions (research results have shown that
some additives can have this effect). Lower
amounts of nitrogen in manure and urine can
reduce N2O emissions.
(e) Increase in feed digestibility and feed
conversion efficiency (CH4).
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A comprehensive review of the management
strategies for mitigation of greenhouse gas
emissions can be found in WMO (2004b).
As for carbon dioxide, it is generally considered
the principal greenhouse gas, but it is produced
mainly from the combustion of fossil fuels and
cannot be sufficiently absorbed by growing
biomass, a problem of increasing importance
because of expanding deforestation. The
contribution of livestock farming to the current
amounts of CO2 in the atmosphere is very low.
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Some studies have been carried out on this subject,
however. Kibler and Brody (1954) measured the
respiratory CO2 of Holstein cows exposed to 20°C
(153 L/h/cow), 27°C (151 L/h/cow) and 35°C (139
L/h/cow).
For cows of the same breed, Yousef and Johnson
(1967) found average amounts of 174.6 L/h/cow
and 136.2 L/h/cow, for ambient temperatures of
18°C and 35°C, respectively. Those figures show
that CO2 emission is reduced as the animals are
exposed to a rising temperature.
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Cows of the same breed were measured by
Loureiro et al. (2005) in a tropical environment
(20°C–33°C), with lower results (128.2 and
131.9 L/h for milk yields of <20 kg/day and
>20 kg/day, respectively. The observed skin
CO2 elimination was 0.17 L/h/m2 on average.
Those are very low figures, confirming that
CO2 plays no role in the livestock production
sector.