12BSo1
RESEARCH
METHODS
EVIDENCE
BOOKLET
Thomas and
Znaniecki (1919)
(interactionist) –
study on migration
and social change,
used both personal
and public
documents
Scott (1990) –
documents should
be assessed by:
• Authenticity
• Credibility
• Representativen
ess
• Meaning
Interpretivists favour
documents because they
achieve validity .
Positivists reject them
because they are not
reliable or generalisable.
(positivists carry out
content analysis)
Ethics – personal
documents that
belonged to the
deceased, not ethical
to use due to lack of
consent
Cannot withdraw as
once documents made
public they cannot be
retrieved.
Examine the
reasons why
some sociologists
choose to use
documents in
their research.
Anderson – Studied
changes in family
structure in 19th
century, used
parliamentary reports
from 1851 census.
Public – produced
by organisations
Personal – private
accounts
Historical - both
(from the past)
Aries – used
documents to
support theory
(child rearing
manuals and
paintings)
Validity – use of
qualitative data
allows
researcher to
gain insight and
get close to
reality
Labov (1973) –
Studied language of
black American
children, formal style
– children were
tongue tied, relaxed
style – children
opened up and
spoke freely.
Kinsey (1953) –
Interviews on sexual
behaviour, asked
questions rapidly to
give interviewees
little time to think,
Follow-up interviews
18 months later to
check answers.
Dean and Gooby (1992)
– Unstructured tape
recorded interviews with
85 people up to 90
mins each. Questions
adapted to fit
circumstances, could
clarify or develop
themes.
Mickee and O’ Brien
(1983) – Female
sociologists
interviewing men, find
that power difference
between men
undermines notion of
interviewer as
dominant.
Examine the reasons
why some
sociologists choose
to use unstructured
interviews when
conducting research
Reliability – not
reliable as not
standardised, each
interview is unique
so virtually
impossible to
make comparisons.
An
unstructured
interview is
where the
questions
asked are not
standardised.
Interpretivists
prefer them
because of
validity. Positivists
do not use them
as they aren’t
reliable or
generalisable.
Flexibility – As
questions are not
fixed they can
explore any topics
that are
relevant/interesting
and formulate new
ideas.
Connor and Dewson
(2001) – Almost 4000
questionnaires at 14
HE institutions, on
factors influencing
decisions of working
class students to go
to university.
Imposing the
researchers’ meaning
– the researcher
decides what’s
important, in closed
questions there is no
opportunity to give
their own true
answer, open
questions: similar
answers are put
Censustogether.
– provides info
on housing and
population that
government needs to
develop policies and
plan and run public
services, also used by
businesses etc.
Positivists favour
them as they are
reliable and
generalisable.
Interpretivists don’t
because they
aren’t valid.
Examine the reasons
why some
sociologists choose
not to you
questionnaires when
conducting research
Schofield (1965) –
Almost 2000 15-19 yr
olds, a girl
misunderstood the
question “Are you a
virgin?” she
answered “No,not
yet”
Response rate –
low, especially
with postal
questionnaires
as they can be
time consuming.
Lying, forgetting
and right
answerism – may
be unwilling or
unable to answer
for many reasons,
the Hawthorne
Effect may occur.
Detachment and
objectivity –
objective as the
involvement of
sociologist is
minimal, this also
means there is
detachment allowing
for more valid
answers.
Reliability –
researchers can
ensure that
interviews are
conducted in
precisely the same
way, questions in
the same order etc.
and results can be
Practical
issues –
easily compared.
• Training is easy
and inexpensive
• Large samples
• Factual info e.g.
age
• Results easily
quantified
(closed
Graham (1983)
questions)
(Feminist) – Researcher
determines questions,
showing women's
subordination, treated as
isolated individuals,
unequal power
relationships between
sexes
PATRIARCHY
Positivists favour
them because they
are reliable and
generalisable.
Interpretivists reject
them because they
aren’t valid.
Examine the reasons
why some
sociologists choose
to use structured
interviews when
conducting research
Response rate –
large sample,
some may
welcome
opportunity to talk,
produces
representative
result.
A structured
interview is
where
questions are
standardised.
Inflexibility –
establishing
questions
beforehand makes
it impossible to
pursue interesting
leads, they only
provide a
snapshot.
Young and Willmott
(1962) – interviewed
933 people
regarding extended
family in London,
asked questions on
religion, birth place,
family contact etc.
10-30 mins each.
Lab
problems:
Lab problems –
ethical issues:
deception,
‘experimenting’ on
children,
practical: small
sample,
unrepresentative/
cannot generalise,
expensive
Lab problems: free
will – humans
Examine the
cannot be studied
problems sociologists
like plants, rocks
face when using
etc.. They have
different kinds of
free will and so
experiments in their
therefore their
behaviour cannot
research….
be explained in
– cannot
termsField
of cause
control
and
effectall of the
Field
variables –
Rosenhan… also
Rosenthal and
Jacobson
(classroom
experiment)
experiments –
more valid,
however ethical
issues such as
deception
Mayo – the
Hawthorne
Effect
Milgram –
obedience and
authority study
Positivists –
prefer
experiments as
highly reliable…
interpretivists
choose not to
use them as they
are not valid as
not a real-life
situation
Thornton (1995)- Found
her age and nationality
a barrier when
studying the clubbing
and rave scene. It can
be hard to achieve
acceptance in a group.
Flexibility- The ability
to adapt questions
around the topic.
Allows sociologist to
enter the situation
with a relatively open
mind about what
they will find.
Punch (1979) Going
native- The danger of
staying in the group is
becoming over involved.
Punch over identified
with the group he was
studying.
Verstehen Insight‘Verstehen’ a German
word for empathy.
Participant observation
allows the researcher
to gain this empathy
through personal
experience.
Examine some of
the reasons why
some
sociologists choose
to use participant
observation in their
research
Humphreys (1970)He had practical
issues when studying
personal issues. He
participated in gay
sexual activities
public toilets.
InterprevivistsFavour
unstructured
participant
observation, as it
achieves their
main goal of
validity. (1962)Griffin
Breached ethical
issues when he
used medication to
change his skin
colour and pass
as black (Black
Like Me).
Observers role- Getting
in poses the question
of what role should
the researcher should
adopt. They should not
disrupt the groups
normal patterns- as
this will affect the
validity.
POSITIVISTS:
Durkheim – sees
statistics as a
valuable resource
for sociologists.
DISADVANTAGE OF
RELIABLITITY:
Official statistics are
not always reliable
E.g census coders
may make errors or
change information
when recording data
from census forms. Or
members of the public
may fill in the census
form incorrectly.
DISADVANTAGE:
Definitions that the state
uses in collecting data may
be different from those who
sociologists would use. E.g.
they may define poverty
differently. – leads to
different views on how large
the problem is.
INTERPRETIViSTS:
Atkinson – regard official
statistics as lacking
validity as they are
socially constructed.
OFFICIAL
STATISTI
CS
PRACTICAL
ADVANTAGE:
statistics allow
comparison between
groups. E.g compare
statistics on classes,
gender and ethnic
groups.
MARXISTS:
Irvine – see
official statistics
as serving the
needs of
capitalism.
OFFICIAL
SURVEYS:
Statistics from
official surveys as
they are based on
a sample of the
relevant population.
E.G – British Crime
Survey
RELIABLITY:
Official statistics are
generally seen as a
reliable source of data.
They are compiled in
a standardised way by
trained staff.