Sociological Research
Research Methods
Positivist sociologists tend to use quantitative methods such as social
surveys using postal or self-administered questionnaires and/or structured interviews.
They sometimes, but rarely undertake experiments and make use of official statistics as
secondary data. Content analysis of the media is usually quantitative.
Interpretivist sociologists tend to favour qualitative methods such as participant
observation, unstructured interviews and field experiments. With secondary data, they are
more likely to examine personal documents and descriptive historical documents.
Content analysis of the media is qualitative.
Primary Research Methods
Social Surveys are the most popular social research method because they can gather a
great deal of data from a large section of the population in a relatively short space of
time. Surveys collect different forms of data;
Factual - the government census is a factual survey, recording details of the population.
Attitude - opinion polls come under this category as they collect people’s attitudes to
events and issues.
Explanatory - these are used to test hypotheses and produce new theories.
Turn to page 177 in your text book and read the article on The Health Survey for
England. Answer the questions set.
Why would British governments find this survey useful?
Secondary data
Some sociologists use research (mainly found by using quantitative methods) to illustrate
their argument. They also use secondary data as a starting point for pieces of research.
Secondary data usually takes the form of official statistics.
One example of secondary data in sociological research concerning education is:
Tikley -Aiming High (2006) (page 217)
Can you think of any more?
Evaluation
Strengths
Weaknesses
Questionnaires
A questionnaire is a pre-set, pre-coded list of standardized questions given to a
respondent. If the questions are read out by the researcher then it becomes a structured
interview.
Questionnaires produce a large amount of quantitative data and can be used on large
sections of the population.
Questions can be open - ended, which gives the respondent an opportunity to expand on
their answers, or closed / fixed choice which limits answers.
Evaluation of questionaires (Page 188)
A typical exam question will ask you to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of a
research method in a 20 mark essay. In order to give a balanced argument you will need
to identify and explain 5 of each.
Strengths
Weaknesses
Supporting Research
In order to gain marks in the higher band, you will need to support your arguments using
research studies that have used this particular method.
Use the space below to identify pieces of research and assess the success of their chosen
method.
Here are two pieces of research you can use as a starting point:
Alice Sullivan-Testing Bordieu’s theory of cultural Capital (2001) (Page 210)
Callender and Jackson-Fear of debt (2004) (Page 240)
The British Cohort Study-evidence on education and social mobility (Page 205)
Interviewing
There are 3 kinds of interviews used by Sociologists: structured, semi- structured and
unstructured. All interviews involve a face-to-face interaction between an interviewer and
an interviewee. They range from highly formal to a relaxed conversation. The length of
the interview varies greatly.
Structured
These interviews use pre-coded questionnaires where standardised closed questions are
asked. This approach is often used for market research. The quantitative data is easily
collated and analysed.
Unstructured
In contrast, unstructured interviews are in-depth and non-standardised and rapport and
trust is built up over a longer period of time. This method is based on flexibility, uses
open-ended questions and allows the respondents more freedom to express their views.
Often used by Interpretivist and Feminist researchers.
Semi - structured
This approach combines the advantages of structured and unstructured interviewing. The
researcher can access data from standardised questions and allow the respondent to
elaborate where necessary, producing quantitative and qualitative data.
Example, Caroyln Jackson-Ladettes (page 225)
See if you can think of any other pieces of research within the study of education that
used, structured, semi-structured or instructed as a research method.
Evaluation of interviews (Page 188-189)
Strengths
Weaknesses
Field Experiments
Not all experiments take place in a laboratory. Field experiments test social behaviour in
the real world in everyday social contexts. For example, a study into social class
conducted on Paddington station compared people’s responses to a request for directions
when a researcher wore a suit and tie or labourer’s clothes.
Look up the work of Rosenhan (1982) (page 178 in text book)
Describe this study. Why can it be classed as a field experiment?
Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) is a good example of a field experiment. Describe this
study and the resulting theory they produced.
Evaluation of experiments (Page 178)
Strengths
Weaknesses
Observational Research
Observational research falls into two main categories; participant observation and nonparticipant observation. These terms describe the extent to which the researcher
involves him/herself with the behaviour being studied.
The researcher may also decide to keep their research hidden (covert) or they may tell
their participants they are studying them (overt).
Research into area of education that include the use of participant observation include
Mac an Ghaill (Page 172)
Participant observation Evaluation (Page 182)
Strengths
Weaknesses
Non-Participant observation Evaluation (Page 183)
Strengths
Weaknesses
Covert observation is usually done amongst groups considered deviant by society or in
situations where the participants would not normally welcome “outsiders” (eg religious
cults)
Evaluation (Page 183)
Strengths
Weaknesses
Overt observations are undertaken with the full consent of the group being studied.
Studies that include the use of Overt observation include the work of Michelle Stanworth
and Becky Francis.
Evaluation (Page 183)
Strengths
Weaknesses
Triangulation is also an aspect of research methods that is worth considering. This is
where a researcher uses more than one research method. Examples include:
Tony Sewell-schooling and black masculinities (interviews and observation) Page 232
Paul Willis-Learning to labour (observation and interviews)
Stephen Ball’s study into the “streaming” of classes (secondary data, interviews and
observation)
Michelle Stanworth-(overt observation and interviews)
Can you think of any more researchers that use triangulation?
Practical, Theoretical and Ethical considerations
The relationship between ethics and research
Research can have a profound impact on a participant’s life. It can be beneficial, but it
could also be harmful. This is why sociologists must take steps to make sure that no harm
comes to their participants. These issues of concerns are generally discussed under the
umbrella term ethical issues.
Take notes on the five areas of ethical concern (Page 170)
The relationship between theories and methods.
Research findings can be used to either create new sociological theories or challenge or
confirm existing theories. However, theory can heavily influence a researcher.
Take notes on the three areas of research in which theory has strong influence (Page 170171), which are:
1. Theory and choice of an area of research (include feminist sociologists,
Marxist/critical sociologists and Functionalist sociologists)
2. Theory and techniques of study (include top-down approaches, bottom-up approaches
and triangulation)
3. The interpretation of research findings
The relationship between practical issues and research
Take notes on how these issues effect sociological research (Page 171-173):
Funding
Academic specialism
Personal reasons
Appropriate methods