Alternative Energy Sources
Bill Pyke
Hilbre Consulting Limited
October 2012
Delivered to:
Alternative Transport Fuels
Hydrogen, Engine Developments & Biofuels
1
HYDROGEN
COMMERCIAL & ENVIRONMENTAL CONCLUSIONS
2
3
Current Situation
• 95% of global hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels
• 500 billion cubic metres /year of hydrogen compares with 2,865 billion cubic
metres of natural gas
• Hydrogen production from fossil fuels with CO2 capture and storage is likely
to provide the bulk of hydrogen required in the next 30-50 years
4
Current Situation (2)
• 5% of hydrogen is produced through electrolysis in localities where a
overproduction of renewable electric power exists that cannot be
effectively distributed through the electric grid
• Liquefied hydrogen important, since pipelines limited.
Only 500 miles in the United States
• Hydrogen then used as balancing power or in transport
5
Hydrogen Process Pathways
6
Source: John A. Turner, Science 1999, Shell 2004
Technology Status in Hydrogen Production
Mature, commercial processes
•
Steam Reforming
•
Gasification
•
Liquefaction
•
Pipelines
•
Electrolysis
7
Hydrogen Storage and Distribution Issues
• High cost of new networks
• Only 70 hydrogen filling stations globally
• Storage as Compressed or Liquefied Hydrogen
Compressed Hydrogen higher cost storage vessels. Safety Issues
Liquefied ; Low temperature -2530C, boil-off, heat transfer, pressure
and safety issues!
8
Illustration of Comparative Hydrogen Costs
Process
Steam Reforming
Partial Oxidation
Coal Gasification
Biomass
HydroElectric
Wind
Solar PV
9
Unit Cost $/Gj
5
9
11
13
12
32
42
Technology
Development
Mature
Mature
Mature
Pilot
Pilot
Pilot
Laboratory
Commercial Cost Issues for a Hydrogen
Economy
• Competitive costs against traditional fuels
• Cost of CO2 Sequestration in Steam Reforming
• Electrolysis Cost (Electricity cost) to generate hydrogen
at commercial rates
• Distribution infrastructure in hydrogen transport fuel
network
• Additional safety systems, materials and processes
10
Evolution of Hydrogen Sources?
11
Source: Air Products
Environmental Issues Hydrogen’s Image
• Hydrogen must be dangerous
• Highly Combustible
Hydrogen 120 MJ/kg
Gasoline
40 MJ/kg
Nat Gas
55 MJ/kg
• Extra safety precautions
needed
12
Environmental Issues
CO2 Sequestration
• Carbon sequestration is the only option to make hydrogen a zerocarbon fuel
• Decentralized hydrogen production implies the practical loss of the
sequestration option
• Hydrogen is then just an efficient way to use fuel. But the CO2 issue
remains!!
13
Carbon Emission Comparisons
0.03
Carbon Content (tonnes/GJ)
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
Wood
14
Diesel
Coal
Natural Gas
Hydrogen
Hydrogen from Gas and Coal
15
Synthesis Gas – “Syngas”
An Important Intermediate
• Methane is the primary constituent of natural gas. In most cases it
comprises >80% of the gas reserves
• Utilised in the formation of syngas- a mixture of oxides of carbon (CO
and CO2 ) together with elemental hydrogen
• Two chemical processes are used in the formation of syngas- steam
reforming and partial oxidation
16
The Steam-Methane Reformer
• A steam-methane mixture is passed over a catalyst.
• Catalyst—usually nickel dispersed on alumina support.
• Operating conditions: 850-940°C, 3 MPa.
• Heat for the chemical reaction is provided by feedstock natural gas. Not
suited to the production of syngas for onwards conversion to middle
distillates. The process is more used in the petrochemical industry- the
onwards conversion to methanol or ammonia
• Conversion of syngas generated by the steam reformer tends to have
H2/CO ratio of about 2 to 3 as per the reaction below:-
CH4 + H2O = CO + 3H2
• Endothermic, takes in/absorbs heat.
17
Partial Oxidation
Oxygen reacts directly with gas
CH4 + ½O2 = CO + 2H2
• The key process in gasification of coal, coke, methane and
biomass
• Operates at high temperatures (1200-1500°C)
• Exothermic, the reaction generates heat
• Need to eliminate tars, nitrogen, methane, sulphur
18
Water-Gas Shift Reaction
Water-gas shift reaction is the conversion of carbon
monoxide into CO2 and hydrogen
CO + H2O =H2 + CO2
Uses catalysts at low temperatures
Enhances production of Hydrogen
Endothermic
19
Hydrogen From Electrolysis
2 MW Turbine
can produce 100 tonnes/year
of hydrogen via electrolysis
20
Electrolysis to Produce Hydrogen
Electricity + 2H2O = 2H2 + O2
2 types
• Alkaline electrolysis
 In production since 1920s, well established
 Potassium Hydroxide electrolyte to decrease resistance
• PEM (Proton Exchange Membrane) electrolysis
 Solid membrane acts as electrolyte
 No cleanup step necessary
21
Economics of Hydrogen Production
Electrolysis
• Currently only 5% of the hydrogen produced annually is derived from the
electrolysis of water
• Cost of the electricity used in the electrolytic process makes it uncompetitive
with the steam-reforming process
• The electricity can cost three to four times as much as steam-reformed natural
gas feedstock
22
EXAMPLES OF LARGE
PROJECTS UTILISING
HYDROGEN
23
The Hydrogen power process utilises technology proven at this
scale around the world
24
Source: BP
Process
• Uses proven reforming technology to manufacture syngas from
methane (CH4) [BP Trinidad]
• Uses proven shift reaction technology to generate H2 and CO2
• Uses proven amine capture technology to capture and remove CO2
[In Salah, Algeria]
• Hydrogen-fired Combined Cycle Gas Turbine (CCGT) proven and
warranted by vendors
• Miller Field naturally contains CO2 so facilities are suitable for
handling well fluids with high CO2 concentrations
25
Commercial/Technical Issues
PRODUCTION
• Reduce cost of production to compete with coal & gas
• Research & develop CO2 sequestration
• Reduce the cost of sustainable production;
Wind, solar
DEVELOPMENTS
Prove new water splitting technologies
STORAGE
• Improve storage capacity - compressed, liquid, hydrides, etc.
• Prove distribution & infrastructure at next level
26
Automotive Trends
27
The Future?
•The Tata Nano
•Relies on a 33 hp two-stroke petrol engine
•Sales Price £1,300
•Per Capita income rising rapidly in
developing Asia
•Indian market 1 billion people
28
Improvements in Automotive Fuels 1990-2012
• Tetra-ethyl lead banned and replaced
• Sulphur emissions reduced from 300ppm to <100ppm
now headed to <10ppm
• Aromatics reduced, nearly eliminated
• Particulates nearly eliminated
• Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (MTBE)- an additive implicated in groundwater
contamination and now banned in U.S.
• Volatile Oil Compounds reduced
29
Vehicle Pollutants
Health Effects
• NOx NO2 can be directly toxic to lung tissue by forming acids with water in the
lungs. When mixed with volatile organic compounds, NO2 forms ground-level
ozone, which is a major component of smog
• Particulates: Can exacerbate all respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. PM10,
produced diesel engines and petrol engines, is the aerodynamic diameter capable
of entering the lung airways. PM10 is partially comprised of PM2.5, which is small
enough to reach the alveoli
• Volatile organic compounds (VOC): Emitted by vehicle engines, they combine with
nitrogen oxides to form ozone. Effects are long term including adverse
neurological, reproductive and developmental effects as well as having
associations with cancer
• Ground-level ozone: A major component of smog, formed from VOCs and nitrogen
oxides. Exposure to elevated levels can lead to severe coughing, shortness of
breath, pain on breathing, lung and eye irritation and greater susceptibility to
respiratory diseases. High levels can also exacerbate asthma attacks
30
EU Maximum Sulphur
Road Fuels: 1990-2010
3000
2500
2000
Sulphur
(ppm)
Gasoline
Diesel
1500
1000
500
0
1990
31
Source: UKPIA
1995
2000
2005
2010
Year
Global
Global
Carbon
Vehicle Fleet
Population
Emission
tonnes
1950
80 million
2.5 billion
70 x 106
2000
900 million
6 billion
1 x 109
2050
2,000 million
9 billion
2-3 x 109
32
26 million vehicles
5 million vehicles
8 million vehicles
224 million vehicles
96 million vehicles
33
Engine Developments
COMMERCIAL & ENVIRONMENTAL CONCLUSIONS
34
Carbon Emissions
EU Voluntary Agreement on Passenger Cars
180
170
160
CO2g/100km
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
2002
35
2005
2010
2015
2020
Transport Evolution
Mass Commercialisation
Fuel Cell Hybrids (FCHVs)
Electric Vehicles (EVs)
Plug-in Hybrids (PHVs)
Hybrids
Internal Combustion Engine Improvements
2010
36
2015
2020
2025
2030
2035
Projected Future Light Vehicle Sales by Category
160
140
Vehicle Sales
120
100
Gas
Plug-in Hybrids
80
Electric
Hybrid
Internal Combustion Engine
60
40
20
0
2008
37
2020
Source: IEA, WEO, November 2010
2035
38
2012 The Outlook for Energy: A View to 2040, ExxonMobil, January 2012
39
Fuel Cell: Principle of Operation
Anode
Cathode
e
-
H+
H2
H2  2H+ + 2e-
O2
½ O2 + 2H+ + 2e-  H2O
Electrolyte
Source: Caltech
40
Overall: H2 + ½ O2  H2O
The Nissan Leaf
Mass Market Electric Car
41
Toyota’s Demonstrator FCHV
42
BIOFUELS
COMMERCIAL & ENVIRONMENTAL CONCLUSIONS
43
Biomass as Fuel
• Pros and Cons
• Biomass to Heat and Power
• Transport Fuels
o Bioethanol
o Sources
o Key players
o Second generation development and yields
• Biodiesel
o Sources
o New technologies BTL
44
Outline
45
•
Sources
•
Availability
•
Advantages/Disadvantages
•
Challenges
•
Cost Parameters
Fuels for
Transport
Electrical Power
CHP
46
Biofuel Transportation
47
National Initiatives
• EU Renewable Fuels Obligation (RTFO)
from 3.5% in 2010/11 to 5% in 2013/14
further increases in the level of biofuels to 10%, subject to review in
2014, under the Renewable Energy Directive
• U.S. Renewable Fuel Standard
(RFS)
requires 7.5 billion gallons of renewable fuel to be blended into gasoline by 2012
• Brazil Bioethanol provides 24% of fuel consumption
• China 3rd largest biomass producer
48
Environmental Appeal
•
Utilises solar energy and converts some of it into biomass –a versatile fuel
•
Removes some CO2 from the atmosphere in the process
•
Provides habitat for native species
•
Multiple products when harvested
49
Disadvantages
•
Competing with land for food production
•
Ensuring Continuous supply
•
Carbon neutral ??
•
Transport costs ??
•
Drying to specification is energy-intensive
Biomass moisture content often 40-60%, needs to be 10-15%
•
Storage Issues
•
Impurities and toxins
50
Properties
Bio-gasoline
• Higher Octane Rating than conventional refinery gasoline
Bio-diesel
• Higher density than conventional refinery diesel
• Higher cetane rating
• Better fuel consumption
But,
• flow properties in cold climates
• engine damage in RME uses?
51
Bio-ethanol / Bio-gasoline
Bioethanol/ Biogasoline favoured in U.S.A. & Brazil
Ethanol added to gasoline as a blendstock
Produced from:-
•
•
•
•
•
•
Sugar cane ( Brazil)
Corn (U.S.)
Molasses
Barley
Rice
Tapiou
52
Ethanol Global Market – 46.5 Billion Litres
North and Central
America
38%
Europe
9,8%
Brazil
33%
South America
Asia
34%
16,2%
53
Potential trading of Fuel Ethanol:
1,5 Billion Liters (2006) → 7,0 Billion Liters (2010)
Source: Petrobras, 2007
Ethanol Fuel Outlet Sao Paulo , Brazil
54
Second Generation Biofuels
Lignocellulosic Bioethanol
1 Ton in the Field
1,718 x 103 KCAL
SUGAR
153 KG
608 x 103 KCAL
BAGASSE
(50% UMIDITY)
276 KG
598 x 103 KCAL
LEAVES (*)
(15% HUMIDY)
165 KG
512 x 103 KCAL
(*) Left on the field
Conclusion: Around 30% of the
energetic content of the sugar
cane aren’t used
55
1 T OF SUGAR
CANE IN THE FIELD
1.718 x 106 KCAL
1 T of Sugar Cane
Each ha. of sugar cane
produces the
equivalent to 79 boe
per year
1 BARREL OF OIL
1.386 x 106 KCAL
~
1,2 BARRELS
=
Sources: Petrobras, 2007 and DEDINI, 2004
OF OIL
Comparison 1st & 2nd Generation Yields
Molasses yields
only 85 L of
ethanol,
But
Sugar cane
bagasse could
yields up to 185L
of ethanol
56
Source: Petrobras, 2007
Biodiesel
Biodiesel favoured in EU Europe
Produced from:•
Oilseed rape
•
Sunflowers
•
Tallow
•
Soya
Trans-Esterification of vegetable oils to produce biodiesel
57
Biodiesel Esterification Terminology
• FAME Fatty Acid Methyl Ester
• SME
Soya Methyl Ester
• POME Palm Oil Methyl Ester
• CME Coconut Methyl Ester
• RME Rape seed Methyl ester
58
Global Market Growth
•
Global 5-10 million barrels/day between 2020-2025
•
Biofuels provided 1.8% of the world's transport fuel in 2008
•
Global ethanol market totals 46.5 Billion Litres
•
Fuel Ethanol is 30.6 Billion Litres (4.8 million barrels), 67% of total
ethanol production
•
Bioethanol consumption is 2.6% of gasoline fuel market
59
The Carbon Dioxide Emissions Well to Wheels
4.5
4
Tons CO2 / ton fuel
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Crude Oil
60
Bioethanol
Source: Shell
FAME
Enzyme
Hydrolysis
BTL
61
Aviation Emissions
62
Source: New Scientist, February 2007
62
Sustainable Aviation Fuel?
Algal-based
Jatropha
Soya
Palm oil
63