Introduction to Fire and
Prescribed Fire Use
Fire Ecology and Management
Jan. 7, 2011
Outline
• Perspectives on fire
• History of fire in the US
• Florida’s fire imperative
– Intro. to fire regimes & fire ecology
• Prescribed burning primer
– How to use fire to perpetuate native
ecosystems
– SAFETY
1 During
1 After
2 During
2 During
2 After
2…3 months After
3 During
3 After
4 During
4 After
Is fire good or bad?
Natural or not?
How did we get to where we
are today?
History of Fire in the US and
Florida
Plant & animal communities evolved in the
presence of intermittent fires.
Lightning-ignited fires
have been burning the
planet for more than 400
million years.
In North America, Native Americans
have been lighting vegetation fires
for >12,000 years.
• Stimulate forage production
for game, game herding,
clearing ag. Land, territory
marking, signaling
Brief history of fire in the US & Florida
• DeSoto, 1538 landed in Tampa Bay, traveled with 600
men, and enough swine to feed them to
Tallahassee…how? From Lake City to Tallahassee, the
forest was open– reports chronicle cleared land, plains,
cultivated fields, open forests, and recently-burned lands
– “thickly settled in numerous towns with field extending from one to
the other, a pleasant place with fertile soil and good
meadows…with many corn fields…”
• Fields alongside most major rivers (Coosa, Mississippi,
Tombigbee, Chattahoochee
• Early settlers emulated Native American fire use (1600s1800s)
– Clearing land, stimulating forage production for game, recycling
nutrients, site preparation
Legacy of NA Fire Use in SE Forests:
good fires
• Major results of repeated burning– forest structure & composition
– Helped perpetuate “park-like” forests, pruned lower branches
– Navigable and open with little regeneration or small trees
– Selected for fire-resistant or fire-dependent species
Legacy of NA Fire Use: They knew
that frequency matters
• Frequency
– “Cereal grasses were fired
annually, basket grasses
and nuts about every 3
yrs., brush and
undergrowth about every 710 yrs., large timber every
15-30 yrs. or more; and
broadcast fire in the fields
on an annual basis got rid
of vermin, disease, weeds,
and regrowth,” (Williams,
1999)
Legacy of NA Fire Use in SE ForestsSeason matters, too (sandhill/ high pine)
–Growing season burns stimulate wiregrass seeding
–Wiregrass attracts browsing animals and birds, improves habitat
for rare species
–Fire “selects for” longleaf pine seedlings over other young trees
–Fire-maintained, human-maintained, or both? Natural or not?
The era of fire suppression: Fires are bad!
• Peshtigo, WI fires of 1871 (12002400 lives)
• Great Idaho fires 1911 (3 Mil.
Acres, 78 people)
• Gifford Pinchot proclaims forests
must be protected from fire to
preserve grazing and timber
• Propaganda…and science!
USFS removes references to
beneficial uses of fire
• Weeks Act 1911, provides $ for
states to fund firefighting
• 1916 National fire suppression
policy instated
• 10 AM Policy of 1935
“Land management is an art that builds on history and is based in science." (Stoddard)
Vs.
• “Renegade” prescribed burning programs in SE,
early 1900s (HH Chapman- Yale) ~1920-60s
(Herbert Stoddard, bobwhite quail, GA)
• Response: Dixie Crusaders in SE US; 1928-1931
• USFS propaganda- fires are lower class…
USFS Psychologist Dr. Shea published an article in American Forests
1940, titled "Our Pappies Burned the Woods," where he was quoted:
“…burning the woods] has become predominantly a recreational and
emotional impulse... the sight and sound and odor of burning woods
provide excitement for a people who dwell in an environment of low
stimulation.... Their explanations that woods fires kill off snakes, boll weevil
and serve other economic ends are something more than mere ignorance.
They are the defensive beliefs of a disadvantaged culture group."
Herbert Stoddard: “…the magnificent virgin stands of southeastern pines,
included frequent burning, carefully controlled fire for the benefit of animal
life…In our opinion, to exclude fire permanently from the park-like pinelands
of the Southeast is to jeopardize both the flora and fauna and to contribute
to their replacement by other and inferior types of animal life and
vegetation. How many who are advocating total fire exclusion in this region
have seriously considered the consequences of disturbing this age-old
adjustment?“ (Tall Timbers Research Station 1961, p.197)
• By 1943, with Stoddard’s help and
after farmers’ complaints about losses
to wildfires due to fuel load build-up,
USFS approved “controlled burning”
• Rx fire re-incorporated into land
management in SE earlier than
elsewhere
• Leopold Report: 1963 in the Western
National Park System: “Let Burn
Policy”, 1968
Loblolly pine, SC 1958
• By 1990s, National Fire Policy
included prescribed fire or “wildland
fire use”
• Today, the SE leads the nation with
>3 Million acres annually burned for
fuels mitigation, restoration, & natural
resource benefits
Photo: Nobles/ Ramierez
Ocala NF, FL 2009
The Legacy of Fire Suppression
• Fuel load build-up
– Larger, less predicable, more
costly
– Higher severity, especially of
overstory spp.
• From mid-1800s to today, active fire
suppression, agriculture, grazing,
and intensive land use practices
altered historical fire regimes.
• Altered fire regimes have
substantially changed ecosystem
composition, structure, and function,
along with the effects fires can have
on ecosystems.
How do we describe fire?
• Fire Regimes: Attributes that describe how fire has
influenced ecosystems fairly consistently over time, and
in relation to other factors (e.g. climate)
• Often used to reach the “desired future condition” in
restoration
• Fire type (crown, surface,
ground)
• Area burned, spatial extent
• Seasonality
• Severity
• Synergism ?
• Fire frequency (fire return
interval)
Examples of FL Fire Regimes
Frequent
fire
Infrequent
fire
Randy Cyr
Longleaf pine forests
Southeastern US
Fire 1-4 years
Low intensity, understory,
summer
Florida Big Scrub (sand
pine) Fire 25-100+ years,
high intensity, crown,
spring or summer, large
areas
Bald Cypress/ tupelo swamp
Fire > 200 years, small area
Mixed severity, only during
drought (peaty soils)
Florida’s Fire Imperative
• The Florida Natural Areas Inventory lists 23 terrestrial, 19
wetland communities in Florida: 16 of these are considered
FIRE DEPENDANT– and will change significantly if
historical fire regime is altered
• What are the most important aspects of fire regime in
Florida, which often determine the rest of the regime??
–
–
–
–
–
–
Sandhill
Dry & Wet Prairie
Mesic Flatwoods
Scrubby Flatwoods
Swamp
Scrub
FRI 1-7 yrs
FRI 2-7 yrs
FRI 3-7 yrs in N. FL, 1-7 in SFL
FRI 8-25 yrs
FRI 8-100+ yrs
FRI 26-100+ yrs
Lightning is itself an imperative
The basis for (successful) fire management is an
understanding of historical fire regimes and the fire ecology on
which they are predicated
Informs how, what, when, and why…and
what if fire is NOT applied to a given system
If Fire is Absent?
• Most Florida ecosystems
transition to shrub-hardwood
communities
• Spatial diversity and mosaic of
communities disappears
• Wildfires become more intense
– Overstory killed
– Soil damage
If Fire is Absent?
• Vegetation
– tree density & cover increase
– composition shifts to shade tolerant
species
– growth rates & tree vigor decline
– herbaceous forage and shrubs decline
• Soils
– organic matter accumulates
– nutrient cycles slow
If Fire is Absent?
• Animals
– late successional species replace seral species
– populations of many species decline
– endemic insects & diseases increase
• Ecosystem processes
– tend to simplify in structure & function
– stream flow & on-site water balance decrease
– potential for large fires increases
Fire management is applied fire
ecology
Ecological Effects of Fire
Basic Premises
1. All ecosystems change over time (even
the old-growth!)
2. Fire is neither innately destructive nor
constructive, it simply causes change
(Wade 1983)
3. Human perception of whether it is good
or bad depends on their resource
objectives
Fire Ecology…coming soon
• Fire effects on soils, water, air, nutrients, carbon,
cycles, geomorphology
• Paleoecology and Fire history
• Fire adaptations, resistance, and resilience
ATMOSPHERIC
CO2
AUTOTROPHIC
CO2
HETEROTROPHIC
CO2
FOREST
FLOOR
SOIL
BOUNDARY
SOIL FUNGI,
BACTERIA
MICRO/
MACROFAUNA
MASTICATED
DUFF &
VEG.
LITTER
BREAK TIME!
Introduction to
Prescribed Fire Use
Foundations in Forest Resources and
Conservation
July 29, 2008
What is fire?
Energy release in the form of heat and light when oxygen combines
with a combustible material (fuel) at a suitably high temperature
The fire Triangle
Oxygen
Heat
Fuel
What does that mean for you as a
fire user? A firefighter?
Fire Science
• Understanding how to use fire, and the effects it
has on ecosystems, depends on a basic
understanding of fire itself
• Methods of heat transfer
– Radiation
– Convection
– Conduction
• Phases of combustion and their consequences
• Fire behavior- rate of spread, flame length,
intensity, residence time, temperature…
What dictates fire behavior–the fire
behavior triangle
1. Weather
2. Fuels
3. Topography
1. Weather (preferences for winter
Rx fire in SE US)
• Temperature (< 60)
• Relative Humidity (30-55%)
– Fine fuel moisture 10-20%
• Wind speed (in stand 1-3 mph)
• Mixing height (1700-6500’)
• Atmospheric stability (resistance of atmosphere
to vertical motion– slightly unstable or neutral)
• Drought indices (KBDI below 400)
Keetch-Byram Drought Index (KBDI)
Okefenokee Swamp/ Big Turnaround Complex, N FL and S GA, May 2007
Season matters!
Today’s weather…(NWS)
Red Flag Warning
000 WWUS82 KJAX 060930 RFWJAX URGENT - FIRE WEATHER MESSAGE NATIONAL
WEATHER SERVICE JACKSONVILLE FL 430 AM EST THU JAN 6 2011 FLZ020>025-030>033035>038-040-062100- /O.NEW.KJAX.FW.A.0002.110107T1800Z-110107T2300Z/ HAMILTONSUWANNEE-COLUMBIA-BAKER-NASSAU-DUVAL-UNION-BRADFORD-CLAY- ST JOHNSGILCHRIST-ALACHUA-PUTNAM-FLAGLER-MARION430 AM EST THU JAN 6 2011 ...
FIRE WEATHER WATCH IN EFFECT FRIDAY AFTERNOON FOR
BREEZY WINDS AND LOW RELATIVE HUMIDITIES...
THE NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE IN JACKSONVILLE HAS ISSUED A FIRE WEATHER
WATCH...WHICH IS IN EFFECT FRIDAY AFTERNOON.
BREEZY WEST TO NORTHWEST FLOW COMBINED WITH DRY AIR FOLLOWING
A FRONTAL PASSAGE MAY SUPPORT RED FLAG CONDITIONS ACROSS
INLAND NORTHEAST FLORIDA FRIDAY AFTERNOON. SUSTAINED WINDS WILL
NEAR 15 MPH WITH GUSTS TO 20 TO 25 MPH POSSIBLE.
MINIMUM RELATIVE HUMIDITIES ARE EXPECTED TO NEAR 30 TO 35 PERCENT FOR BRIEF
DURATIONS IN CONCERT WITH BREEZY WINDS.
A FIRE WEATHER WATCH HAS BEEN ISSUED. PRECAUTIONARY/PREPAREDNESS
ACTIONS... A FIRE WEATHER WATCH MEANS THAT CRITICAL FIRE WEATHER CONDITIONS
ARE FORECAST TO OCCUR. LISTEN FOR LATER FORECASTS AND POSSIBLE RED FLAG
WARNINGS. &&
2. Four general fuel groups
Anderson, 1982
Orientation divides 4 groups
Anderson, 1982
The 13 fuel models
3. Topography
Applied Fire Science & Ecology =
Prescribed Fire Use
Prescribed Burningdefinition
• The application of an understanding of fire
science (combustion, heat transfer, fire
behavior) combined with a knowledge of
fire ecology to achieve pre-determined
management goals
• Five Steps: Analysis, prescription,
preparation, execution, evaluation
Analysis & Prescription
• 1. Analysis
– Why is prescribed fire necessary here and now?
– Is it the best option to achieve goals?
• 2. Prescription
– What needs to be included in a prescribed fire
prescription?
•
•
•
•
•
•
Objectives and methods to evaluate them
Resources available (engines, crew members)
Desired and critical weather
Acceptable and expected fire behavior
Contingency plans (contact numbers, etc.)
Special precautions, smoke screening
Prescription– special precautions
• Threatened/
endangered
species
• Potential for loss
of control
• Firefighter/
firelighter safety
• Smoke mapping
of sensitive areas
Most deaths caused by fire in FL
Have little to do with the fire itself…
Photo: Ramirez
Preparation
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Develop burn plan
Notify those who might be impacted
Check weather
Obtain permit from DOF
Walk the lines
Check equipment
Brief the crew, address questions
Check weather!
Test burn
Execution
• Keep the Fire Behavior Triangle in mind at
all times!
• Prescribed Fire Safety…
PRESCRIBED FIRE SAFETY
• All fire is inherently dangerous; fatalities have occurred
on prescribed burns, during mop-up, and under routine
conditions
• Trapped by erratic fire behavior
• Equipment rolling over
• Smoke/ carbon monoxide
• Vehicle accidents
• Aircraft (crashes, retardant drops)
• Heat exhaustion, heat stroke
• On the fire line (mishandling tools, bee stings,
falls, rolling rocks, burns, falling tree limbs)
• PPE
PRESCRIBED FIRE SAFETY
Carbon Monoxide Effects
 Alertness - dull senses
 Vision - difficult to discern colors, brightness
 Time Perception - poor judgment of time
 Fatigue - greater than expected for work production
 Judgment - often contrary to training and safe
practice
 Muscular Coordination - difficulty in doing basic
tasks
Personal Protective Equipment
PRESCRIBED FIRE SAFETY
101
ookouts
ommunications
scape Routes
afety Zones
10 Fire Fighting Orders
ight fire aggressively but provide for safety first.
nitiate all actions based on current and expected fire
weather.
ecognize current weather conditions and obtain
forecasts.
nsure instructions are given and understood.
10 Fire Fighting Orders
btain current information on fire status.
emain in communications with crew
members/supervisor and adjoining forces.
etermine escape routes and safety zones.
stablish lookouts in potentially hazardous situations.
etain control at all times.
tay alert, keep calm, think clearly, act decisively.
“WATCH-OUT SITUATIONS”
1.
2.
3.
4.
Fire not scouted and sized up.
In country not seen in daylight.
Safety zones and escape routes not identified.
Unfamiliar with weather and local factors
influencing fire behavior.
5. Uninformed on strategy, tactics and hazards.
6. Instructions and assignments not clear.
7. No communications link with crew members or
supervisor.
“WATCH-OUT SITUATIONS”
8. Fireline construction without safe anchor points.
9. Building fireline downhill with fire below.
10. Attempting frontal assault on fire.
11. Unburned fuel between you and fire.
12. Cannot see main fire, & not in contact with anyone
who can.
13. On a hillside where rolling material can ignite
fuel below.
14. Weather getting hotter and drier.
“WATCH-OUT SITUATIONS”
15. Wind increases and/or changes direction.
16. Getting frequent spot fires across line.
17. Terrain and fuels make escape to safety zones
difficult.
18. Taking a nap near the fireline.
19. Personal protective equipment not available or
properly utilized.
20. Not familiar with equipment being operated.
ACMF BOUNDARY LINE
SAFETY ZONE
SAFETY ZONE
Burn Unit,
Recently Thinned,
Compartment 14
SAFETY ZONE
LCES
Ignition
techniques?
Compartment 14
Prescribed Burn
July ,2008
W
Roads
Firelines
Compartment
400
0
Special Hazards?
N
E
S
400
800 Feet
SUMMER ANNUAL BURN
SAFTEY ZONE
Setting the black line
• Videos from March 21st 2008,
Compartment 8
Step 5. Evaluation
• Based on the objectives of your burn plan
• Should be measurable
• Inform future prescribed fire use (all
aspects)
Field
Percent Crow n Volum e Scorch
March 21, 2008 Rx Burn, Com partm ent 8 Stand 195
N = 211 Trees Inventoried
70
Frequency
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
1-20
21-40
41-60
61-80
PCVS (%)
•211 Tree Inventoried
•20 trees at 100% PCVS
•Predicted Mortality?
•Mean PCVS = 35%
81-99
100
References
• Whelan, R. J. 1995. The Ecology of Fire. Cambridge University
Press, United Kingdom.
• Rowe, J. S. 1983. Concepts of fire effects on plant individuals and
species. In The Role of Fire in Northern Circumplar Ecosystems,
ed. Wein, R. W. & MacLean, D. A., pp 135-154. London: Wiley.
• Fire Effects Information Database: Everything you ever wanted to
know about a particular species and its fire adaptations/ ecology!
– http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
• Youtube: Search “Wildland fire” and you’ll find all sorts of cool
videos made by firefighters on the front line.