Market-Led Pluralism:
Re-Thinking Our Understanding of
Racial/Ethnic Spatial Patterning in
US Cities
Lawrence A. Brown and Su-Yeul Chung
Department of Geography
Ohio State University and Western Illinois University
Columbus, Ohio 43210-1361; Macomb, Illinois 61455-1390
Third International Population Geographies Conference. June 2006
Liverpool United Kingdom
Vast Differences Between US City of Today
Compared to Quarter and Half Century Ago
Call for Rethinking Frameworks
That Provide an Explanation of
Clustering/Segregation
Along Racial/Ethnic Lines
Portrayals of residential patterning in US metros emphasize SEGREGATION
Kaplan, Wheeler, and Holloway 2004 text:
“African Americans remain extremely segregated several decades after the
civil rights movement”
“Hispanics are more segregated than Asians
“African Americans are highly segregated [but] some improvement”
“segregation for Hispanics increased notably during the 1990s”
Logan, Stults, and Farley (2004) research paper:
“in every year [1980-2000], blacks were the most segregated group; Asians
were the least segregated; black-white segregation decline[d]; segregation
of Hispanics and Asians remained almost the same; blacks remained more
segregated from whites than were Hispanics or Asians”.
SUNY-Albany Lewis Mumford Center institutional setting:
Present three decades of D-Indices (1980-2000) for US Metro Areas under
the heading -- “Exploring the persistent and changing nature of segregation
in America's metro areas, large and small”
Hence, expect segregation, high levels of clustering when
considering racial/ethnic residential patterning in US city
How
Then
Do
We
Explain --
But we’re not alone -NYT on America’s Newest Suburbs -“Instead of all-white enclaves of the 1960's + 70's, new exurbs are a
mélange of colors and cultures.”
Columbus Dispatch on political strategy --
“inner tier suburbs … extension of cities they surround [with] increasing
concentrations of ethnic minorities, generally liberal attitudes on social questions …
greater presence of singles in high-rise and condominium developments … receptivity
to arguments for environmental protection and planned growth
Terms have been coined -- ethnoburb, invisiburb, saffron suburb
Questioning relevancy “of the U.S. black-white model, which reflects legacy
of slavery including its contemporary forms of discrimination and resultant
socioeconomic disadvantages ... [thus] rendering a black-white portrait of
America anachronistic”
Questioning “the reification of white suburbia as paramount space of American
cultural belonging ... [that] spatial assimilation theory remains fixed on the
normative objective of propinquity to whites in suburban locations.”
Leads us to question current-day significance of
three primary frameworks addressing racial/ethnic
residential patterning -Assimilation, Stratification, Resurgent Ethnicity -even as complementary constructs.
Concern especially sharpened after realizing, and
probing into,
role of market makers in present-day racial/ethnic
residential fabric -Articulated as the Market-Led Pluralism framework.
Assimilation
Associated with Melting Pot ideal; Stems from Urban Ecology
school of 1920s
Immigrants, having adapted to US society, then move into
established neighborhoods that generally are spatially more
distant from the CBD
In context of today, similar idea –
Racial/ethnic minorities relocate to higher status areas in closer proximity to
majority Caucasian population, but melting pot ideal is less central
Structural Assimilation, measured by socio-economic characteristics such
as income and education, differentiated from Cultural Assimilation,
measured by indicators such as English language ability and length of
residence in US (for immigrants)
Also Segmented Assimilation – options of (i) Acculturating middle class
values of dominant Caucasian society (traditional assimilation), (ii) Gravitating
to underclass, or (iii) Advancing socio-economically [and spatially] while
maintaining strong ties with origin community culture and society
Stratification
Structural forces associated with housing discrimination, racial
stereotyping, prejudicial preferences lead to segmented
housing markets, neighborhood stratification
Disadvantaged groups in terms of race/ethnicity relegated to
particular places; (upward) spatial mobility to other locations is
impeded
Resulting racial/ethnic location patterns seen to persist even
though judicial, legislative, and societal changes in the latter
half of twentieth century moved current practices far afield from
earlier ones
View consistent with occurrence of inertia effects on socioeconomic landscape (Brown, Lee, Lobao, and Chung 2005).
Resurgent Ethnicity I
Why does segregation persist, after removal / amelioration of
housing discrim, racial stereotyping, prejudicial preferences?
Emphasizes racial/ethnic preference in residential choice,
“in-group attraction”
E.g. Asian + Hispanic immigrants who cluster in more affluent
areas of New York / Los Angeles, sometimes without cultural
assimilation such as language skills (Logan, Alba, Zhang 2002).
Such racial/ethnic settlements better understood as “ethnic
communities” driven by preference, rather than “immigrant
enclaves” driven by economic and cultural constraints
Generates (re-)segregation – even though integration (Assim)
socio-economically feasible and discrimination (Strat) abated
Occurs because cultural + economic aspects of (im)migration
are decoupled
Resurgent Ethnicity II
Resurgent Ethnicity patterning occurs in (at least) three ways.
1. Spillover Effects related to invasion-succession; traditional
enclaves and neighbors are insufficient to hold newcomers
2. Chain Migration; ties of immigrants with “assimilated”
relatives or friends leads to settlement near them
3. High socio-economic status immigrants; settle directly
in more affluent locales
Resurgent Ethnicity articulated in terms of immigrants, but …
Applies also to native-borns in traditional racial/ethnic
enclaves who experience SES increase, and
Choose traditional enclave or another racial/ethnic enclave
that is commensurate with their SES.
Resurgent Ethnicity III
Implies two types of racial/ethnic neighborhood –
1. Traditional Enclaves that expand, absorb lower SES,
less culturally assimilated immigrants, and native-borns
2. New Racial/Ethnic Neighborhoods in more affluent (??)
areas, providing shelter to entrepreneurs. professionals, etc
Chain Migration is common to both types of concentration,
Spillover effects apply to traditional racial/ethnic enclaves
Socio-Economic Status effects apply to resurgent ethnicity
Neighborhoods.
Spatial-Social Polarization is an outcome
Heterolocalism parallel: “applies to recent populations of
shared [racial/]ethnic identity [in] … a dispersed pattern of
residential location, … while maintaining strong social cohesion
… despite the lack of propinquity” (Zelinsky + Lee 1998, p. 293)
Table 1: Class-Culture and Structure-Agency
Essentials of Residential Patterning Frameworks
Class
Culture
Structure
Agency
1
Assimilation
Addressed
As socio-economic
status increases
minorities choose
better, more
Caucasian
neighborhoods
Addressed
English language ability
improves, minorities
become accultured
towards middle-class,
Caucasian values,
and move accordingly
Addressed
Neighbors, societal
attitudes, and real
estate institutions
create barriers to
minorities
Addressed
Individual choice seen
as the operant force
Stratification
Not Addressed
Addressed
Racial/ethnic prejudice
and real estate
discrimination prevent
minorities from residing
in more Caucasian,
better-off neighborhoods
Addressed
Real estate agents,
mortgage lenders,
housing markets, and
related institutions
purposively act to
segregate minorities
Not Addressed
Not Addressed
Addressed
Individual choice and
preferences are the
operant force
Addressed
Real estate agents,
mortgage lenders
housing markets,
the government, and
related institutions
purposively act to
open markets and
increase home ownership
among minorities
Addressed
Individual choice and
preferences are the
operant force
Resurgent Ethnicity
Addressed
Addressed
As socio-economic
In-group atttraction
status increases
leads minorities to reside
minorities choose
in proximity to others of
better neighborhoods the same racial/ethnic
group
Market-Led Pluralism
Addressed
As socio-economic
status increases
minorities choose
better neighborhoods
in accordance with
personal preferences
Notes:
1. Structure is implicit, not explicit
Not Addressed
Stepping Away; Adjusting Our Lenses
1. Increasing racial/ethnic profile of suburbs, Ethnoburb, Safron Suburb
2. Discriminatory housing practices (Strat) greatly attenuated in impact
3. Inertia effects visible, but Stratification processes not strong in today’s
residential sorting
4. Heterogeneous neighborhoods per se (Assim) not necessarily attractive +
thus a marginal or irrelevant criteria in housing choice
5. Segmented Assimilation has currency but word “assimilation” carries
baggage, and limits understanding current-day dynamics, especially
because the process can be only partially assimilation
6. Resurgent Ethnicity more applicable current day, but how pervasive is
in-group attraction as driver of racial/ethnic residential patterning??
7. Racial/ethnic clusters might occur from personal networks/contacts as
much as preference (or both) so assessing Resurgent Ethnicity is difficult
8. All frameworks miss “Market Makers” –
** MARKET-LED PLURALISM **
Market-Led Pluralism Components --
Developers -- unveil new urban spaces with culturally open communities
Lending Agencies -- provide highly affordable mortgages to increasingly
wide range of households
Government Policies directed to affordable housing, home ownership
as national priority, American dream commitment
Real Estate Brokers/Agents -- discriminatory practices of past are
illegal, profit reducing, and beside the point
Consumers -- preferences, tempered by affordability, is shared, not
differentiated, along racial/ethnic lines
Communities -- own development agenda impacts housing markets
Facilitating these are –
Information that is pervasive + fluid (web, e-mail, cell phone)
Procedures that are more systematized, automated, transparent
Class-type elements, e.g. affordability and amenities (housing,
Neighborhood), dominate consumption equation; not Culture
Well working market mechanisms characterize new reality
Market-Led Pluralism Summary I
Represents commercial perspective on today’s housing market,
Owning and renting
Today’s markets – open/dynamic -- compared w/ 20+ years
ago (Stratification)
Transportation improvements, regional planning, spatially
dispersed employment opportunities -- loosened monocentric
city grip – spatial spread/expansion
Developers respond w/ enormous array of multi-household
projects, often billed as “communities”
-- single-family dwellings, traditional condominiums, condominium
arrangements of single-family dwellings, rental properties
– projects aimed at full range of market in terms of income
-- in the process, also opens market of former residences
(positive filtering)
Empirical Evidence on Builder Impact -NYT reports New River community in Tampa MSA, exurban, one county
removed from central city, has
“38 percent Hispanic, 24 percent white, and 16 percent black.”
More indirectly, considering influential segment of population who
continually relocate (relos) in moving up corporate ladder, NYT notes
“relos have segregated themselves, less by the old barriers of race,
religion and national origin than by age, family status, education and,
especially, income.”
Columbus -- Table 2 highlights population characteristics of six sub/ex-urban
municipalities + one MSA county that experienced significant growth since
1990, largely through construction of new homes + communities by
builders (as on Figure 1)
In all seven examples, minority population growth, ranging from 160 to 850
percent between 1990 and 2000, out-stripped growth of political unit
overall.
Table 2: Selected Governing Unit/Municipality Characteristics; 1990 and 2000
Dublin
1990
Total Population
Grove City
2000
Hilliard
1990
2000
1990
New Albany
2000
1990
Pickerington
2000
1990
Reynoldsburg
2000
1990
2000
Delaw are County
1990
2000
16366
31392
19661
27075
11579
24230
1621
3711
5668
9792
25748
32069
66929
109989
African American
0.9
1.7
0.5
1.5
0.7
1.5
0.8
1.6
1.5
3.7
4.1
10.4
2.1
2.5
Asian
4.5
7.4
0.4
0.6
0.8
3.5
0.1
2.7
0.7
1.4
1.5
1.7
0.6
1.5
Hispanic
0.7
1.0
0.5
1.2
0.9
1.8
0.4
0.8
0.8
1.3
0.9
1.8
0.5
1.0
6.1
10.1
1.4
3.3
2.4
6.8
1.3
5.1
3.0
6.4
6.5
13.9
3.2
5.0
Percent Population
Percent Minority (AA, A, H)
Percent Minority Grow th
Percent Population Grow th
Foreign Born(pct)
Median Household Income
Median Home Value
4.9
71996.0
217.5
211.1
496.0
850.0
271.2
169.7
91.8
37.7
109.3
128.9
72.8
24.5
9.1
0.8
91162.0 34350.0
1.2
1.5
4.2
52064 36415.0
69015.0
0.5
5.8
2.1
39333.0 102180.0 45862.0
2.3
2.5
63664.0 37169.0
3.6
159.8
64.3
1.7
2.6
51108.0 37896.0
67258.0
181600.0 243200.0 75200.0 120600 72800.0 157600.0 102400.0 452900.0 87300.0 137900.0 78700.0 123000.0 95900.0 190400.0
Source: 1990 and 2000 Census of the United States, American FactFinder
Role of Building sector in Market-Led Pluralism context -Builders target broad range of markets, rent and own segments
Building in large quantities, communities, away from metro center,
reflecting land availability and cost
Housing supply, from entry-level to luxury, across full range of price-points
Reflects market and anticipated demand at any given level.
Amount of construction fueled by enormous increase in people with ability
to own, (recounted in Lending Section).
Building is race/ethnicity-blind, but if R/E dimension in market, may be
addressed explicitly through advertising, welcoming gestures, etc.
Creates derivative supply of older houses so segments can improve living
conditions -- “filtering up”
Effect is centrifugal loosening of spatial patterns representing R/E aspects
of residential mosaic
Class-, not culture- considerations are paramount in this segment of M-LP
Market-Led Pluralism Summary II
Moving products facilitated by burgeoning range of mortgage
instruments + agencies, especially in past decade.
Undergirding these are government initiatives carried out by
FHA, FannieMae, FreddieMac, HUD, etc
-- loosened mortgage + loan programs considerably
-- pressed for racial/ethnic opportunities in housing
-- promoted American Dream to/for all
-- supported outreach that educates public in home buying
procedures/possibilities
Exhortations not merely sloganeering or vote-getting exercises;
real and lots of $$$; potential gains for business/NGOs enormous;
they respond accordingly
“Today’s home purchase parallel to mindset in automobile buying;
How much per month; current costs, future not factored in“
FannieMae American Dream Commitment Program in 2000 for
“first time home buyers [so that] 18 million minority and underserved
Americans can own or rent a home by the end of the decade”
“with housing and lending partners, we launched a wide range of
mortgage innovations and initiatives that brought low-cost, consumerfriendly home financing to new people and places, and made it easier
for minority families and the working poor to get their foot in the door of
homeownership or obtain safe, decent, affordable rental housing”
An informant who specializes in mortgages noted
“Consumers are much more educated today, at all SES levels. In 1990,
when conventional mortgages were the norm, buyers often didn’t even
know the difference between [or consequences of] a fixed or variable rate.
Today ... major developers and lenders make a point of informing and
educating people ... Also, home ownership is perceived by the market as
much more possible, whereas that wasn’t the case in 1990.”
Same informant drew parallel today’s housing market and automobiles;
“[just as] you can get into a new car for so much per month; the pitch [in
today’s housing market] is [often] in terms of present or current costs, not
future costs”
Role of Lending Sector in Market-Led Pluralism context -Burgeoning increase in mortgage products over last two decades,
housing accessibility increases rapidly expanding segment of pop
Major impetus has been federal government commitment to home
ownership + American Dream, institutions such as Federal Housing
Authority (FHA), Federal National Mortgage Association (FannieMae)
Embraces partnering of government + private enterprise, provides distinct
incentives; private sector responded resoundingly
Target of home ownership programs is lower income households, where
race/ethnicity characteristics are over represented, but R/E + Fair Housing
practices also explicit concern of programs
Mortgage lending also enters rental unit market by programs + policies
designed to increase R/E representation in quality rental units dispersed
throughout metro area
Spatial manifestation of govt program related mortgages in Columbus is
highly uneven, visually correlates with maps showing the locations of R/E
minorities + lower-priced new communities (building sector)
Culture-type considerations play significant role in this segment of M-L P
The Home Mortgage Market I
Traditionally dominated by Savings-Loans + conventional mortgages where
pct of house price (typically 20%) paid up front. Changed dramatically in 1990s,
opening home ownership to enormously wider spectrum of the population
1. Full service banks + specialized lending agencies now major players
2. Specialized lending agencies incl brokers who shop for mortgage country
wide via web etc (e.g., California lender finances Columbus home buyer)
3. Mortgages immediately factored to secondary market comprised of large
nation-wide banks (e.g., Wells Fargo) or govt-created entities (e.g.,
FreddieMac) – reduces/eliminates lender risk, increases capital turnover,
stimulates market
4. Mortgage products proliferated -- FHA + VA programs, available for
decades; now Fed Nat’l Mortgage Assoc (FannieMae) Community Home
Buyer Programs (offer “low or no down payment”), buy-down mortgages,
sub-prime lending, wrapping closing costs into mortgage itself, etc
5. Loosened credit rating requirements; e.g., debt to income ratio, typically
28/36 for conventional mtg-s but 29/41 for FHA mtg-s, + treated with greater
flexibility
Impact – Enormously expands the pool of potential home buyers!!
The Home Mortgage Market II
Major impetus for proliferation is government/government-related entities
FannieMae -- American Dream Commitment Program -- for “first time home
buyers, 18 million minority/underserved can own/rent a home by end of decade”
“we launched wide range of mortgage innovations and initiatives that brought
low-cost, consumer-friendly home financing to new people ... made it easier for
minority families/working poor to get foot in door of homeownership or ... safe,
decent, affordable rental housing”
US Department of Housing and Urban Development -- “HUD's mission is to
increase homeownership, support community development, increase access to
affordable housing free from discrimination”; claims that “Homeownership is a
National Priority”
President Bush -- wants to “increase the minority homeowners by at least 5.5
million before the end of decade” and proposed “zero-down-payment initiative”
Rental housing programs – e.g., Low Income Housing Tax Credit (LIHTC)
authorizes “States ... to issue Federal tax credits for the acquisition,
rehabilitation, new construction of affordable rental housing ... a project must
have specific proportion of units set aside for lower income households and
rents on these units limited to 30 percent of qualifying income”
The Home Mortgage Market II – Continued
Exhortations not merely sloganeering or vote-getting
exercises.
Huge amounts of government $$$ back up what is said
Efforts are “partnered” with financial institutions, local
governments, real estate professionals, housing lenders,
builders, and nonprofit housing organizations
Simply put –
Potential gains for NGOs and business entities have
been -- and are -- enormous
And they have responded accordingly.
The Home Mortgage Market III -- Responses
1. Developers (M/I, Dominion, Maronda) created/integrated financial arm
within Firm (M/I Financial, Dominion Financial, MFC Mortgage)
2. Numerous free-standing mortgage agencies, in addition to full-service
banks – e.g., Broadview Mortgage w/ offices throughout Ohio
3. Typical web site outlines home buying process (Home Buyers Guide, FAQs),
describes loan products (Your Loan Options, Calculators), facilitates application
(Apply On Line, Pre-Qualify Now), encourages personal contact (Talk With Us
Today, Free Consultation)
4. Products include Blemished Credit Options, down payment assistance, no
minimum credit score to qualify, adjustable rate mortgages with a below-market
fixed rate for three years
5. Photos each “Home Loan Expert” with homey, comforting words -- “Call,
e-mail, or visit Melanie ...[she] understands true meaning of customer service,
Dedicated, ensures best mortgage products and rates”
6. Photo of Melanie indicates she is African American; a Spanish family
name is common among staff; often home page has “Se Habla Espanol”
The Home Mortgage Market IV -- Consequences
Bank VP who specializes in mortgages noted that -1. “Consumers much more educated today, at all SES levels. In 1990, when
conventional mortgages were norm, buyers often didn’t even know difference
between [or consequences of] fixed or variable rate. Today ... major developers
and lenders make point of informing/educating ... Also, home ownership is
perceived by market as much more possible; wasn’t case in 1990.”
2. A parallel between today’s housing market and automobiles where “you
can get into a new car for so much per month; the pitch [in today’s housing
market] is [often] in terms of present or current costs, not future costs”
3. Consequence of focus on current costs and low/no down-payments is
foreclosure increases, especially in a down economy when individuals lose
jobs. Scenario (i) -- interest rates rise for adjustable rate mortgages, which are
less expensive initially. Scenario (ii) -- new houses, when property taxes kick in
year or so after purchase. Scenario (iii) -- minimal/zero down-payment, home
owner does not have cushion to cover real estate commissions and other
selling costs.
4. In Franklin County OH new foreclosure filings between 1994 and 2001 rose
from 1552 to 5007, with especially dramatic jump (32%) between 2000 + 2001
.
Market-Led Pluralism Summary III
On demand side,
Individuals respond to opportunity, within affordability
constraint; realize amenities such as owning home, space/parks,
school district choice, proximity to work, etc
Overall,
Profit + consumption are pervasive in equation, as always
Market is open because discriminatory practices are illegal, lessor un-profitable, confronted by households (Stratification)
Individual decisions might be driven by desire to assimilate or
live with one’s own ((Segmented) Assimilation, Resurgent
Ethnicity); some discriminatory practices (Stratification)
continue
In terms of variance explained, however, Market-Led Pluralism
accounts for extraordinarily high proportion of the change in
racial/ethnic residential patterns, at least since 1990
“Under some circumstances ... brokers are more interested in preventing
ethnic tipping, and thereby preserving their white customer base, than
they are in serving the interests of black or Hispanic customers.” (Yinger)
“If many real estate agents have ‘a smiling face’ but a bigoted spirit, they
have been doing a mighty poor job of keeping blacks out of white
neighborhoods” (Thernstrom + Thernstrom)
When it comes to color, all he knows is that “money is green” (Agent)
“Our team has added a Spanish-speaking agent, Spanish-speaking
mortgage lender, title company that speaks the language ... also I've
invested in tapes to bring back Spanish that I haven't used in 50 years”
Not simply benevolence or enlightenment -- “potential sanctions under current
law include six- + seven-figure .. damage awards for victims” (Farley-Squires)
”Realtors today aren’t as concerned about fair housing and stuff [like that]
so much as mold ... issue isn’t so much whose selling and whose buying
[as it is] disclosure, disclosure, disclosure.”
“sure, [legal] sanctions may not get down to the level of someone like
myself ... but even if they did, self interest … is a good consumer product
… whole business geared to having real estate be a good thing -- Board
of Realtors to big developers + banks on down [to local guy like me] -they’re all trying to create a quality [dependable, trustworthy] experience”
Role of Selling + Renting sector in Market-Led Pluralism -Discriminatory practices continue in housing market, but empirical
evidence (e.g., “Audit Studies”) indicates they constitute small share of real
estate + rental transactions; have dropped dramatically over past three
decades; continue to drop at steady pace
Home owner informants gave no hint of encountering such practices,
and other informants + map patterns, buttress conclusion that selling +
renting practices are, mostly, distinctly non-discriminatory
Shift reflects potential sanctions stemming from government policy and
legal rulings; that discriminatory practices not linked to income as they
were thirty years ago; that for many, maybe most, focus is taken up by other,
more pressing concerns (e.g., mold, disclosures, inspections, termites)
Related to latter is crossing of two trends over past three decades -enormous decrease in racial/ethnic aversion at personal + institutional
level; an enormous increase in consumer advocacy laws, practices,
expectations
Culture-type considerations were once paramount in this segment of M-LP,
but class- considerations dominate today
Table 3: House and Neighborhood Preferences of Recent Movers, Columbus Ohio 1998
Franklin County
Mean Score
Columbus Seven County MSA
Standard
Number
Deviation
Responding
AA
C
AA
C
Good Investment or Resale Value
5.91
5.92
1.42
1.19
Economic Characteristics of the Neighborhood
5.48
5.49
1.66
1.28
Racial Composition of the Neighborhood
4.32
3.54
1.88
Saf ety of the Neighborhood
6.07
6.04
Community Recreational Opportunities
4.38
Reputation of Schools
Quality of Academic Programs
AA
Mean Score
C
AA
56
871
52
831
1.81
44
1.24
1.06
4.04
1.93
5.52
5.67
5.85
5.94
Quality of Athletic or Extracurricular Programs
5.14
Racial Composition of the Student Body
Standard
Number
Deviation
Responding
C
AA
C
AA
C
5.85
5.94
1.36
1.21
142
1525
q5
5.35
5.39
1.56
1.35
130
1458
q6
743
3.90
3.46
1.81
1.83
98
1261
q6
54
849
5.98
5.98
1.26
1.15
133
1485
q6
1.85
40
742
4.25
3.83
1.99
1.89
99
1278
q7
1.85
1.78
44
705
5.33
5.57
1.99
1.78
106
1248
q6
2.00
1.68
34
641
5.71
5.84
1.79
1.71
90
1138
q7
5.14
2.19
1.95
35
621
5.15
5.05
1.97
1.95
89
1104
q7
4.00
3.68
2.28
1.89
28
587
3.95
3.63
2.27
1.93
74
1020
q7
Economic Status of the Student Body
4.06
3.91
2.36
1.79
34
597
4.15
3.88
2.15
1.86
85
1048
q7
Special Programs in Schools (e.g., gif ted, arts, sciences)
4.73
4.92
2.45
1.99
33
606
4.74
4.78
2.11
2.00
84
1070
q7
Saf ety in Schools
5.42
5.71
2.15
1.76
38
627
5.44
5.66
1.93
1.77
93
1113
q7
Quality of School District's Buildings and Facilities
5.16
5.42
2.16
1.77
38
624
5.26
5.32
1.92
1.77
94
1108
q7
In Choosing Your House and
Neigborhood, How Important
Were the Follow ing:
Schools:
Notes:
Respondents rated items on a Lickert Scale f rom 1 f or Not Very Important through 7 f or Very Important.
AA indicates Af rican American respondent; C indicates Caucasian respondent
For all questions, there is no signif icant dif f erence betw een the Mean Scores of AA and C at the 95% conf idence level.
Question numbers in the original survey are indicated in the last column
Findings on Preferences -For all thirteen items, no significant difference between
Caucasians (C) and African Americans (AA) for MSA or Franklin
County (F)
Relative importance of items among the set of thirteen.
Least important is Racial Composition of the Neighborhood
and Racial Composition of school’s Student Body, the
dimension given most attention in earlier research
Economic Status of Student Body also is relatively unimportant
Most important items are Good Investment or Resale Value,
Safety of Neighborhood, Quality of Academic Programs
Range of opinion -- consistently more divergence among
African Americans than Caucasians + while not statistically
different, AA’s are noticeably more concerned with Racial
Composition of the Neighborhood and Student Body
From New Home Consultant for a builder -“quality of life is the primary motivation for choosing a home, not
the color of the neighbors ... Blacklick Ridge is pretty much a
melting pot ... [and if there is a specific criteria] one thing people
often say is ‘I want to live in a neighborhood where parents
expect their children to attend college’”
Thernstrom and Thernstrom --
note that middle-class African Americans are as prone to
avoid poorer, higher crime, lower amenity neighborhoods
as are Caucasians; that despite the parallelism, racism is
attributed to Caucasians but not African Americans, when in
fact -- “The views of middle-class blacks ... are not basically
different from those of whites.”
Three-plus decades of racial/ethnic mixing in schools, work place, places of
consumption -- together with policy shifts, new laws, successful legal
challenges -- dramatic effect in terms of change in R/E aversions
“These scouts, young people, are black, green, red, all kinds. They don't
have the background of what ... occurred 20-30 years ago ... don't have a clue
what the Vietnam War was about, the post war reaction of mid-70's, race riots
... moved forward [to the point that] they don’t understand characters such as
Archie Bunker [of sit-com, All in the Family, fame] making fun [of prejudice] ...
I find them open to ideas, willing to work with each other ... everywhere I
go [with the scouts and elsewhere] I find diversity ... its change ... and we
[also] find it in the approach to ... the overall market.”
Thernstrom and Thernstrom -“ ... half a century ago, most white Americans were distinctly uneasy about
... having black people ... in their neighborhoods ... [but] by 1972 ... the
number [with this concern] ... had fallen so much that the question
disappeared from surveys. It wasn’t an issue anymore. ... Prejudice against
sharing a neighborhood with African Americans has declined so
precipitously that whites today are ... far more nervous about ... having a
next-door neighbor who ... is a religious fanatic than ... having one who is
black.”
Role of Consumer sector in Market-Led Pluralism context -Given available housing (Build sector), funds for buying or renting (Lend
sector), that discriminatory biases are not introduced by market agents
(Sell-Rent sector), racial/ethnic representation in any given place will
depend on, reflect, consumer preferences
We argue -- Consumption equation of seeking neighborhood + housing
amenities, tempered by affordability, is shared, not differentiated by R/E
Supported by informant data, survey of 1998 home buyers, by circumstantial
reasoning regarding marked decline in R/E aversion due to mixing in
schools, work, places of consumption
Sample of 1998 home buyers indicates, in choosing new home, racial
composition of neighborhood + schools was least important of 13 housing
preference items, for both AA’s C’s, and these groups did not significantly
differ from one another in this preference, or others
Calls into question focus, and current-day relevance of earlier research that
dwells on neighborhood composition in terms of race
Class-, not culture- considerations are paramount in this segment of M-LP
Role of Local Communities in Market-Led Pluralism context -Residential expansion occurs within context set by local communities,
which impose own development agenda, or lack there of, on markets
Driving agenda -- economic growth, enhancing/protecting tax base,
creating/maintaining community style, pop size, avoiding strangle by
(other) suburbs
Agenda may vary in breadth, from one/two community sectors (e.g.,
housing, education) to full range in balanced-growth manner
Tools -- include land annexation (thru utility provision, infrastructure
enhancement), local government/administrative consolidation, zoning,
architectural review, reconciling conflicting agendas
Important -- administrative capacity, foresight in planning process (when
established, what kind of process, etc), community history
Within MSA, communities vary greatly in planning endeavors; spatially
differentiated outcomes in cost, type, character of housing, related
amenities. Race/ethnicity characteristics impacted accordingly
Employment associated with community affects pop composition
Class-, not culture- paramount, but culture motivation readily masked by
planning agenda that is economically exclusive
“Pro-development is very common among municipalities -most cities think that growth for growth’s sake is good -others, but not many, say ‘growth of what kind’”
“some [leaders] are simply grasping for whatever they can get;
others will say ‘no’ and hold out for what they want”.
“ ... development drives growth, but the city/township [unit]
determines the kind of growth using zoning, architectural
standards, design review, development standards [etc]”
Mission Statement of Cleveland Heights Ohio goal
“To remain a leader in integration, assuring mutual
respect among a racially and culturally diverse
population”.
Employment Profile Effects -- Planned or Accidental -S/W Columbus -- Defense Construction Supply Center
(DCSC); well-paying, good-benefit jobs, more often custodial,
office clerk, blue collar-type sectors; staffed by (former) armed
forces, many African American or other minorities / Similarly,
Rickenbacker Port Authority complex, former military base -Both preceded Pickerington + Reynoldsburg development
North Franklin County and beyond is more high tech, new
economy, white collar positions, higher education expectations /
Cardinal Health Corporate Office, Compuserve-WorldCom
(formerly), Limited Corporate Office, Online Computer Library
Center (OCLC), Scott Lawn Care Corporate Office, Verizon
Wireless, Wendy’s Corporate Office -- Ohio Wesleyan,
Otterbein, other institutions of higher learning -- major US Honda
plant accompanied by many Asian-based suppliers
Table 4: MSA County Employment Profiles and Related Characteristics, Excluding Franklin
Total Population
Delaw are
Fairfield
Licking Madison Pickaw ay Union
County
County
County
County
County
County
58580
61476
72422
18205
22281
20826
Management and professional occupations
45.6
32.2
29.2
25.9
26.2
27.1
Service occupations
10.7
13.4
14.5
14.9
14.2
13.8
Sales and office occupations
27.4
28.7
27.7
25.7
25.7
26.3
Farming, fishing, forestry occupations
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.8
Construction, extraction, maintenance occupations
6.6
10.2
10.5
11.3
11.9
8.7
Production, transportation, material moving occupations
9.4
15.3
17.7
21.7
21.4
23.4
African American
2.5
2.7
2.1
6.2
6.4
2.8
Asian
1.5
0.7
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.5
Hispanic
1.0
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.8
Percent Minority (AA, A, H)
5.0
4.2
3.5
7.3
7.2
4.1
Foreign Born(pct)
2.6
1.3
1.1
1.1
0.7
1.0
67258.0
47962.0
44124
44212
42832
51743
190400.0 129500.0 110700
104300
Percent Employed In
Percent Population
Household Income
Median Home Value
Source: 2000 Census of the United States, American FactFinder
112400 128800
Table 4 -Delaware County, coherent forward-looking planning,
Relative strength in Management + Professional
Less in Service, Construction-Maintenance, ProductionTransportation occupations
Highest household income and home value
Minority representation 5.0% (3rd highest);
African American 2.5% (norm)
Madison + Pickaway Counties
Lowest in Management + Professional
Highest in Construction-Maintenance, Service,
Production-Transportation
Income and home value at very bottom end
Minority representation, 7.3% + 7.2 % (highest);
African Americans 6.2% + 6.4% (highest)
Concluding Observations on Market-Led Pluralism -M-LP directly reflects workings of today’s housing market
within which race/ethnicity distinctions occur
An account of how things operate, not abstraction, unlike
many social science frameworks.
Our thinking embraces the profit-motive and related selfinterest mechanisms as a dominant force in R/E issues; eg -Discriminatory practices, central to the stratification
framework, proliferated and continued only so long as
financial gain was there; in general, no longer the case
As places of work and consumption become increasingly
multiE/R, fading of Caucasian ideal such that
assimilation per se becomes marginal/irrelevant in
housing choice, heterogeneous neighborhoods not
attractive in themselves, personal utility functions shift
towards more contemporary concerns (schools, safety,
investment value), and are shared, not R/E distinct
In different venue -- “the ski industry is ... realizing ... it has to
go multicultural to grow, How white do you think your resort
can be in 35 years and still be in business?”
Wynter (2002) -“The much maligned melting pot ... is bubbling again ... this
time whiteness itself is finally being dissolved into a larger
identity that includes blacks, Hispanics, and Asians ... big
business turned up that flame …while white privilege still
obtains in America, it’s becoming a luxury that’s less and less
fashionable and more and more costly to maintain … I can’t
imagine corporate capital supporting the cost of whiteness
past its economic retirement age. Never forget: The
underlying motivation for the institution of political whiteness
has always been economic first and social second. Hence
no economic return, no more whiteness.”