ERIC FRAZIER
Racial Profiling
The Education of America
Sociology 453 B
4/25/2008
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Racial Profiling
The post-September 11th, 2001, world has raised concerns, questions, and controversy in this
country and abroad. With the focus being on the United States, these points are evaluated and
analyzed by referring to experiences of individuals and families, government officials, and even
the arts. These experiences are based on racial profiling of Middle Eastern individuals and
families, and the emotional and physical consequences. However, what happens when a person
“looks” Middle Eastern? The attacks on September 11th, 2001, were perpetrated by Arabs and
Muslims (Onwudiwe, 2005). The most effective solution to this problem of racial inequality lies
in the education of the majority. The majority population in the United States consists of white
citizens who have privileged access to scarce resources. In the subject of racial profiling, scarce
resources include equality, identity, and mere hope for survival.
To begin with, why does racial profiling even exist? Post-9/11, some, such as a Louisiana
Representative, would say to hinder the advances of terrorist organizations in the United States.
But who determines what constitutes a terrorist? As Onwudiwe describes this very question,
“…there is no easy way of defining terrorism universally” (Onwudiwe, 2005). If there is no easy
way to define it then it will leave people to have the power to maintain subjective opinions on
what characterizes a terrorist. Because the United States appoints officials to protect its citizens,
citizens must trust the judgment of these individuals. If such people feel that it is necessary to be
biased in their protection and judgment, it is important to be consistent. In other words, they
must use discretion in the use of their authority and be careful to not go too far.
As Onwudiwe discusses in his article the ramifications of racial profiling and the definitions of
this practice, he points to other authors to support his conclusions. For example, he states,
“Ramirez et al. (2003:3) aptly define racial profiling as any police initiated action that relies on
the race, ethnicity or national origin…that leads the police to a particular individual, who has
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been identified as being, or having been engaged in criminal activity” (Onwudiwe, 2005). If this
is the definition of racial profiling, then instances of hate crimes based on believing that all
Arabs have a tie to the tragedies of 9/11, should not occur. However, police are not the only ones
who express discrimination against Arabs. The events of September 11th, 2001, fueled these
instances of outrage leading to the finding that, “Chang (2003) reports that over 1000 incidents
of hate violence were perpetrated against people of Arab descent in the few months following
September 11” (Onwudiwe, 2005). Therefore, contrary to Ramirez’s definition of racial profiling,
Chang implies it as being conducted by average citizens. People commit crimes of discrimination
against Arabs because they believe all Arabs are connected to the unfortunate occurrences of
September 11th. One advocate of changing the practices of law enforcement in the United States
is the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU).
The American Civil Liberties Union has published a report discussing the deep-seated issues of
racial profiling and discrimination in the United States. Throughout the report, the ACLU points
to concerns of the treatment of migrant workers, women, and Arabs. The report contains stories
of victims of such crimes as hate, violence, and death. For example, one man was not allowed to
board a Jet-Blue airplane because of a t-shirt that he was wearing. The shirt had two languages,
English and Arabic, that read ‘We Will Not Be Silent’. The ACLU filed suit against the airliner
for the civil rights violation against the Iraqi-born Jarrar (ACLU 2007, p.70). Jarrar changed his
shirt and was eventually let on to the plane; however he was forced to sit in the back. This cannot
be a necessary procedure in order to protect the other passengers. Jarrar was not convicted or
even suspected of anything. He simply was wearing a shirt that supported people such as himself
that were being discriminated against. In other words, this exact action is what that shirt was
made for.
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A second chronicle mentioned by the ACLU report takes place in Stoughton, Massachusetts. The
basis of the experience involves, “…May 2002, police, fire trucks and the bomb squad
converged…in Stoughton after Muslim men were sighted praying at sunset” (ACLU 2007, p.72).
The ACLU report provides little discussion in regarding these accounts, but the facts are quite
clear. Sunset and sunrise are Muslim prayer times. Profiling this event as being performed by
possible terrorists caused the witnesses to report it as a possible attack. Pointing to the Patriot
Act, Onwudiwe discusses connected factors when saying that the Act provides, “tremendous
responsibility and expansive powers to law enforcement…to discriminate…engage whatever is
necessary, including profiles” (Onwudiwe, 2005). Therefore, the Stoughton law enforcement
officials concluded that there was a possible threat by profiling the prayer session as a possible
initiative for an attack and did “engage whatever is necessary” by sending emergency response
teams to the scene. The overreaction here was not by the emergency response teams. These
teams performed exactly what they deemed needed to be done with the information they had. It
was possible situations such as this that created the apparent need for the Patriot Act. The
overreaction here was instead performed by the witnesses. This exact situation again stresses the
need for the education of the majority on worldly religions.
Consider an individual who merely appears to be Middle Eastern. This appearance may include
the stereotypical beard and Turban often worn by Muslim men. Perhaps he may not even be
wearing either of these and instead it is his dark complexion and accent that causes the
discrimination. One example of this happened in New Bedford, Massachusetts. The ACLU
report describes, “…in July 2003, when Saurah Bhalerao, a Hindu university student of Indian
origin…was told to ‘go back to Iraq’, as he was beaten, burned…bound with a rope…then
stabbed…” (ACLU 2007, p.71). This shows a clear example of a mistake or possible ignorance
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by citizens when profiling what they believed to be a person of Middle Eastern descent. These
are without a doubt wrong actions performed by American citizens, however the larger picture is
that the man was not even of Middle Eastern descent. He was not from Iraq, he did not practice
the religion of Islam. The significance of this is that the perpetrators clearly believed that they
were doing America a justice by ridding it of a known enemy, but the United States is not even
fighting Hindu Indians. Education of these criminals of how Hindu Indians have absolutely no
ties to the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan could most likely have saved Saurah’s life.
Following the previous three examples in the report, the ACLU goes on to state, “U.S. efforts to
combat hate crimes against Arabs, Muslims, and South Asians urgently needs improvement”
(ACLU 2007, p.72). Prior to the description of these stories, the ACLU had described the
position of the United States as, “The U.S. reports that it has made significant strides to prevent
and punish race-based hate crimes…yet Muslims- and those perceived to be Muslim- experience
intolerance and abuse at truly astronomical and rising rates” (2007, p. 23). Thus, the conclusion
of the ACLU is that the United States has a great deal of improvement to make concerning racebased hate crimes and discrimination. Perceiving someone as being Middle Eastern and treating
them differently due to this incorrect notion is a major concern of the ACLU report and must be
more of a concern to the people of the United States.
This issue of mistaken identity, possibly due to ignorance, continues in yet another story.
Bornstein explains in his article that a 22 year old U.S. citizen of Pakistani descent encounters a
strip search at an Illinois airport by the orders of a National Guardsmen. The strip search takes
place after a metal detector had found “nothing incriminating” (2005). The practice of searching
individuals prior to boarding an aircraft is crucial to national security. September 11, 2001
proved that America is vulnerable to human error, however random searches of people who are
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Middle Eastern is an example of human error because not everyone that has an Arabic name is a
terrorist, and people who do not have Arabic names are still capable of committing crimes on
airplanes. Therefore, the National Guardsmen violated the Fourth Amendment to the
Constitution by insisting on a search with no basis of probable cause considering the metal
detector was not set off. Thus, racial profiling and suspicion is not stopped by laws because
separate laws grant power to such officials to use their own, subjective discretion. Beyond mere
education being a solution, amending the search procedures will also solve this problem. In a
nation that prides itself on equality, there must be a way to ensure it among search methods. For
example, search equal percentages of all ethnicities. Require 10% of all Arabs to be searched, 10%
of all Whites, 10% of all Blacks, Latinos, Native Americans, etc. Flawless? Of course not, but it
is fair.
Certain laws, such as the Patriot Act, empower police and other officials to discriminate and
profile. The United Nations is joining the ACLU in the opposition to the practices by the United
States government, including profiling and discrimination based on ethnicity. The problem, in
regards to these new powers, as described by Bornstein is, “the new policing is political
opportunism and tyranny at the expense of democracy” (2005). He is saying that the United
States is abusing its power to engage its own initiatives and suspending due process as
guaranteed by democracy. As Jamil Dakwar, Advocacy Director of the ACLU Human Rights
Program attacks this practice, “‘To claim the high moral ground and assert leadership on the
issue of human rights, the U.S. government must address the systematic discrimination…that
exists in its own backyard’” (U.S. Fed News Service, 2008). “Systematic discrimination” implies
the government’s involvement in these practices, while this article points to the United Nations’
recommendations regarding these issues just mentioned. For example, by passing the Federal
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“End Racial Profiling Act”, instances such as the aforementioned stories will not reoccur. If they
do, there will be criminal consequences rather than punishment at the discretion of superiors,
since the Patriot Act empowers these individuals. Another suggestion is to “Protect non-citizens
from being subjected to torture”. Passing this legislation would ensure human rights of all
residents, documented or not. The “Civil Rights Act of 2008” would guarantee equal protection
and desegregation of all American citizens, where the goal of this legislation would be to protect
non-citizens as well, impeding mental anguish as well as physical torture caused by racial
profiling (US Fed News Service, 2008).
The United States implements a classification system to separate individuals on the basis of race,
e.g. the census. This classification system determines certain benefits of minorities and unwritten
privileges of the white majority. This system is seen in college applications, formerly on
employment applications, and still on federal aid applications. However, as Hassan reports,
Arabs are considered to be classified as the white majority, yet in light of recent events, “are
denied the rights of other recognized minorities and excluded from the racial privileges of the
white majority” (Hassan, 2002 21). This apparent state of inequality leaves not only the Arab
citizens without a true identity, but also the majority in a state of panic. The history of the United
States shows a sense of uneasiness, by the white majority, when any minority group gains a
sense of power. For example, had the attacks of September 11, 2001 been perpetrated by
nineteen white males, would random white men be picked off the street and sent to detention
centers? As Bayoumi reports in 2004, “After the September 11 attacks, more than 5,000
immigrants were rounded up by early law enforcement sweeps in a systematic effort of selective
prosecution.” Such events lead to disappearances and internment for indefinite periods of time.
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As racial profiling has been shown to affect the individual victim of discrimination, it has also
affected families to a great extent. The branch of the Federal government known as the
Immigration Nationalization Service, or INS, has been merged into the Department of Homeland
Security, and has enacted legislation to require “Special Registration”, with the assistance of
Attorney General John Ashcroft, for non-citizen Middle Eastern males. As one scholar describes
this registration, “…any male, over the age of sixteen, who is not currently a permanent resident,
from 25 countries…required to register in person…on a few weeks’ notice” (Stein, 2003). Stein
explains this procedure as including fingerprinting, photographing, and other identification
methods (2003). Connected to this new method are events such as those experienced by Middle
Eastern families. For example, “…another side of America was showing its face…most sharply
represented by the hundreds of Pakistani families who fled the United States…” (Cainkar, 2004,
13). This is in reference to the new registration that families would rather flee from than face the
discrimination and bias associated with it. Therefore, new laws are causing families to be split
and support the U.N.’s statement saying that the United States has a long way to go. Increasing
discrimination by the Federal government will increase the same in the public.
Continuing with the experiences and hardships endured by families during the post-9/11 era, we
look at Beitin’s study regarding the social environment. The study focuses on the accounts of
eighteen couples of Middle Eastern descent and their personal accounts of discrimination and
racial profiling. In one example, we relate the Jet-Blue lawsuit involving Jarrar to one of the
couples reporting that, “…they were scrutinized by airport security because they were speaking
Arabic” (Beitin 2005). Taking these two events of pure discrimination due to simple language
differences, we point to another man in the same study that states, “It occurred to me that just
like people that think every Black is a criminal, they think every Arab is a terrorist” (Beitin,
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2005). Therefore, it is becoming a feeling among those of Arab descent that no matter how little,
if at all, they may be involved in radical secular groups, people will always be suspicious of their
actions.
Such blatant profiling and hardship must have negative tolls on the victims. As Beitin reports,
“Nabil and Leena experienced terrorism in Egypt. They believe living through the terror
prepared them to cope with the aftermath of September 11, 2001” (2005). Being used to
discrimination is not a reason for it to continue. As a minority group, it is crucial for Muslims to
have the support of people in the majority groups if success and survival is going to be possible.
Beitin describes a possible solution to one of the members of the couples being taken out of the
circle of family support, “several of the wives in this study were home alone all day…their
husbands worked and got support from coworkers. A marital therapist should intervene to help
each spouse find the necessary support” (2005). Beitin is saying here that this group is being so
heavily discriminated against that it will take outside help in order to solve the problem. Since
the privileged white majority has the access to education and employment opportunities such as
therapy, it is logical and practical that the necessary help comes from this group.
The practices of government officials and law enforcement agencies have contributed to the
increasing discrimination and racial profiling by citizens and officials. For example, a
Republican Representative from the state of Louisiana by the name of John Cookse gave a
statement over the radio waves referencing airline security procedures. The statement is as
follows: “If I see someone who comes in that’s got a diaper on his head and a fan belt wrapped
around the diaper on his head, that guy needs to be pulled over” (Greenblatt, 2003). Another
similar example comes from a Bush appointed official on the US Civil Rights Commission. Peter
Kirsanow has been reported stating, “If there’s another attack by Arabs on U.S. soil, ‘not many
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people will be crying in their beer if there are more detentions, more stops, more profiling’”
(Hassan, 2002 18). These are statements being made by members of the Federal government.
Again, as a nation that prides itself on equality, its citizens are supposed to follow statements
such as these when among those citizens are people who fit those descriptions. The blatant
insulting context of both statements, especially the first, is one that the Federal government is
supposed to be stopping. Whether this is believed or not by the American public, these are the
exact sort of proclamations that Diana Eck refers to in her statements. With such statements
being made by government officials, and being combated by scholars, Eck describes that when
scholars write and speak, they must do it in a manner that educates the general public (Hilliard,
2002). This is the solution to racial profiling and discrimination.
This education of the American people is clearly vital in the hindrance of racial profiling and
discrimination. As Hilliard also reports, a man of the Sikh faith was shot and killed in Mesa,
Arizona. Sikh men wear Turbans out of respect to God, such as those stereotypical of Arab men.
This perpetrated hate crime against Balbir Singh Sodhi was followed by thousands of letters
being mailed to his family in condolence of the event four days after September 11, 2001
(Hilliard, 2002). Along with discrimination by individuals in their own personal settings are
bound to be similar issues while they are at work, protecting the interest of their respective
companies and their own personal job security. For instance, incidents have arisen in regards to
American Express and Western Unions practices with their customers accounts. It is reported by
Bayoumi that these two companies have begun either closing accounts or refusing to transfer
money if a party involves someone with a “Muslim-sounding” name. It is suspected that this is
because of limitations set by the USA Patriot Act and “fear of prosecution” (Bayoumi, 2004 38).
The significance of these events points to the errors of the United States government. If the
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government is putting fear into business owners and their employees, they are going to look out
for themselves before anyone else. Social Darwinism will take precedent in the minds of people
being confronted with the possibility of losing their jobs; they will do whatever is necessary to
ensure their own safety. The solution to this problem must be started at the top, i.e. the Federal
government.
Maintaining the importance of education, misconceptions such as perceiving someone to be an
Arab or Muslim occur on a more global basis. In other words, it is more than just the individual
or the family that is being misconceived, it is entire religious sects. For example, the term “jihad”
has been used on television news stations and newspapers to describe the “holy war” that is
being carried on by Osama bin Laden and his men. However, as Masci reports in his article, a
man by the name of Zahid Bukhari is also stressing the vitality of education among non-Muslims.
Bukhari states, “The most abused translation of the work jihad is ‘holy war’…That word means
to struggle, to strive for…when you work for your family, your children, a good living, this is
also jihad” (Masci, 2001). Thus, having the American people believe that this term must be
connected to the negative actions by terrorists is obstructing the advancement of Arab Americans.
This is a term that is incredibly important to their religion and way of life and is being
misinterpreted due to pure ignorance of the news stations that are simply looking to make a
headline.
In conclusion, it is without question that September 11, 2001 changed the world. Necessary
changes in security have been made, and improvements are continuing to be made in ridding the
world of terrorism. The problems that have begun to arise since the days following the attacks on
the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, as well as the heroism in Pennsylvania, are truly a
travesty to the memory of the victims. The practice or racial profiling is one that is embarrassing
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this nation as a whole and destroying the families of the victims. As Diana Eck proposed, the
solution to the problem is the mass education of American citizens. By explaining to people the
differences that occur in this country in regards to religious practices are not always a terrorist
initiative, there can be a true understanding and a true melting pot in America. Ignorance is not
an excuse.
Discussion
I mentioned in the introduction that I would discuss racial profiling and the arts. To do this, I
wanted to add an entire section devoted to it for two reasons. The first reason being that it was
tough to decide whether or not they would be considered scholarly resources. One of the quotes
that I will discuss is found in a scholarly journal, however it would not be enough to describe in
the original research. The second reason is that I feel that this is interesting and worthy of its own
section where I can describe it in better context. It is a powerful method to educate people on the
issues and just how important they are.
The first is a song written by Bruce Springsteen, American Skin (41 Shots). This is a song
written about an event in the Bronx where a Black man was falsely murdered by police officer
simply because he looked like the suspect of a rape- the man was actually innocent. The actual
verses of the song describe the story, however the chorus brings up the larger picture, “It ain’t no
secret, no secret my friend. You can get killed just for living in your American skin.” I feel that
this is a great connection to the previous research on racial profiling. It points to the fact that a
person can be killed purely on the basis of how he looks.
The second account is from the movie “Inside Man”. Other movies depict scenes of racial
profiling and discrimination, but this one sticks out the most in my mind because it takes place
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after 9/11 in New York City. The scene displays a bank robbery where a hostage is pushed
outside with a box tied around his neck. His hood is removed and a Turban revealed. With a
negative reaction from the police officers, the situation suddenly becomes a possible terrorist
attack because of the perception that this man is an Arab. The reality is that he is a Sikh, not an
Arab and not a threat.
The final example is from a man named Suheir Hammad, a New York citizen during the 9/11
attacks. He wrote a poem that states:
“fire in the city air and I feared for my sister’s life in a way never before. And then and now, I
fear for the rest of us…please God, after the second plane, please don’t let it be anyone who
looks like my brothers” (Cainkar, 2004).
This is a powerful example of the feelings and fear of people of Middle Eastern descent.
Interview with Hassan Zawawi
Saudi Arabia is one of the largest business centers in the world. Here at Bryant University, we
are fortunate enough to have citizens of this country as students. Two such students are brothers,
one of which is a roommate of mine. Hearing stories from him of the “random searches” and
scrutiny that he goes through was truly the reason for writing this paper. After speaking with him,
he has agreed to have his responses of several questions that I asked him to be submitted with
this paper. The purpose of the interview was to see how often he had been travelling to and from
the U.S. and the differences in the procedures when dealing with his family members.
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1) When was the first time you travelled to the U.S. and what were your feelings as you
travelled here?
a. The first time I came to the U.S was when I was 4 years old. We came on vacation to
visit Disneyland, California, and Hawaii. I was pretty young there, but I was pretty
fascinated. I thought the USA was just one big theme park like Disneyland.
2) How often do you travel to and from the United States?
a. Since I started going to college I’ve been going back home twice a year. So I would say at
least 12 times if not more.
3) What scrutiny and special procedures, if any, do you encounter on these trips at airports, etc.?
a. Every time I pass through the United States border control I get pulled aside for
questioning and security checks, my bags always get searched. I am expected to register
with INS and let them know when I’m leaving and entering the country.
4) I know your family also travels to other countries, do you experience these procedures there?
a. In other countries when I travel I always go through the regular checks just like the
travelers.
5) How do you feel about the practices of racial profiling and ethnic discrimination?
a. Personally when I get pulled aside and told it’s a “random check” I cannot get upset or
angry. All I can do is smile and say go ahead. End of the day one has to realize that these
are just TSA employees who are doing their jobs. They are the not policy makers. What
will I benefit if I get upset or angry? The answer is nothing. I am here for the purpose of
education and as long as they let me in I am happy. The interesting part is when I visited
the US 15 years ago it was extremely easy. My dad sent our passports to the consulate
in the morning and the visas were ready that same afternoon. Now I have to make an
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appointment three months ahead of time so I can go for my personal interview. After
the interview I wait for a period of 2-3 weeks to hear back from them.
6) Do your brothers (one being 2 years older than you, one being 2 years younger) and your
parents encounter special procedures?
a. May parents sometimes get pulled aside but usually they don’t. This is because my dad
is considered to be over the age criteria and my mom is a female who don’t fall into the
criteria. My brothers both go through the same process as me.
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