EVERYTHING’S AN
ARGUMENT
Andrea A. Lunsford and
John J. Ruszkiewicz
 In
general, what is an argument?
A
claim or particular point of view.
 How
can the clothes you wear, the foods you eat,
and the groups you join act as an argument?
 It
demonstrates who you are and what you value.
 An
argument can be any text – written, spoken, or
visual – that expresses a point of view.
 Sometimes
arguments can be blunt and aggressive;
sometimes arguments can be subtle or hidden.
WHAT IS AN ARGUMENT?
HOW IS THIS AN ARGUMENT?
HOW IS THIS AN ARGUMENT?
HOW IS THIS AN ARGUMENT?
HOW IS THIS AN ARGUMENT?
AUTHOR AND PURPOSE
 Argument
is to use evidence and reason to
discover some version of the truth or
conviction.
 Persuasion
is to change a point of view or to
move others from conviction to action.
 Persuasion
that is designed to change
opinions at all costs – abandoning reason,
fairness, and truth – is propaganda, or to some
advertising.
ARGUMENT VERSUS PERSUASION


Not all language uses aims to win
over others (in contrast to the
traditional Western concept of
argument being a disputation or
combat). Ex. Fast Food Nation

Reasons for an argument:

-Inform (street signs, reviews,
newspaper headlines)

-Convince (reports, articles)
 -Persuade (Ads, political blogs,
An argument can also be an
newspaper editorials)
invitation that aims not to defeat
another person or group but to
 -Explore (Expository essays, such as
invite others to enter a space of
“Once More to the Lake”)
mutual regard and exploration. Ex.
 -Make Decisions (Essays, articles)
Outliers
 -Mediate or pray (Sermons)

-Academic (Essays, reports)
PURPOSES OF ARGUMENT

Arguments about the past.

Forensic arguments are debates about what happened in the past; common in
business, government, and academia.

Relies on evidence and testimony; also, precedents – actions or decisions made in
the past that influence policies or decisions in the present.

Arguments about the future.

Deliberative arguments debate what will or should happen in the future.

Relies on prior forensic arguments, as well as projections, extrapolations, and
reasoned guesses.

Arguments about the present.

Ceremonial arguments are often about contemporary values, such as addresses,
speeches, sermons, eulogies, and other civic speeches.

Praises what’s admirable and blames what’s not.
OCCASIONS FOR ARGUMENTS

Stasis Theory is categorizing arguments based on the issues they address.

Arguments of Fact: involves a statement that can be proved or disproved with
specific evidence or testimony. Ex. Global warming.

Arguments of Definition: involves questions of definition – what something is or isn’t.
Ex. Is a human fetus a human being?

Arguments of Evaluation and Causality: measuring individual people, ideas, or
things against another; what caused a circumstance or situation? Ex. Is a hybrid car
better than a regular car? What are the causes of climate change?

Arguments of Proposal: identifies a problem and proposes a course of action that
will lead to a solution.

Stasis in Action: Choose a topic, and use one of the types of arguments above to
write a 3-5 sentence argument.
KINDS OF ARGUMENTS
AUDIENCE
 An
intended audience is the audience the writer or speaker
consciously wants to address. Ex. During a graduation speech given
by a valedictorian, whom might be the intended audience?
 Writer’s
intentionally use certain diction, syntax, figurative language
and imagery to reach his or her intended audience. (i.e. Rhetorical
Analysis).
 “The
most powerful resource any of us can have as we study and
teach in university settings is full understanding and appreciation of
the richness, beauty, and primacy of our familial and community
backgrounds.” – Bell Hooks, “Keeping Close to Home: Class and
Education”
 Whom
is the intended audience?
INTENDED AUDIENCE

Rhetoric is the art of formal written
and oral expression.

“The art of thinking you thoughts
and expressing them clearly.”

Many philosophers (and a lot of
teachers) believe that if you can’t
express your thoughts clearly and
logically, you are not thinking
clearly.

Also, thought of as the art of
effective or persuasive speech,
especially though the use of
figures of speech, devices, and
techniques.
WHAT IS RHETORIC?
 Aristotle
identified three key ways
writers can appeal to his or her
audiences: Ethos, Pathos, and Logos.
 Ethos
is the presentation of self –
whether the speaker or writer is
trustworthy and/or credible.
 Pathos
is to generate emotions
(anger, fear, jealousy, empathy, pity,
love) in readers.
 Logos
is the use of reasons and
evidence – facts, statistics, testimony,
examples, narrative, or experience.
APPEALING TO AUDIENCES
 In
any argument, there is a
relationship/dynamic
between the speaker/writer
(ethos), the audience
(pathos), and the message
(logos).
 Interpretation
or effectiveness
of the argument (purpose)
depends on the context
(situation) of the argument.
RHETORICAL TRIANGLE
A
rhetorical analysis is a close reading of a text to analyze
the effectiveness of an argument, as well as the components
of an argument.
 Because
arguments have many aspects, focus on elements
that stand out.
RHETORICAL ANALYSIS

What is the author’s purpose?

Who is the intended audience?

Who is the writer or speaker?

What claims are made? What evidence is used?

What appeals or techniques – ethos, pathos, logos – are used and
how?

How does the language or style of the argument attempt to
move or persuade an audience? (Diction, Syntax, Tone, Figurative
Language, Imagery, etc.)

Your rhetorical analysis itself will become an argument.

However, whether you agree or disagree with the argument you
are analyzing doesn’t matter.
WHAT TO LOOK FOR