A Primer in Enlightenment Philosophy
This presentation describes the key philosophical
perspectives of ancient Greek society, the Italian
Renaissance, the Protestant Reformation, and the
Enlightenment.
In simplistic terms, these perspectives are:
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Greek Philosophy: Ideal Society
Italian Renaissance: Pragmatic Society
Protestant Reformation: Mass Society
The Enlightenment: Science and Society
Greek Philosophy: The Ideal Society
Socrates (470 B.C. to 399 B.C.)
Socratic Method
• Solve problems by answering
a series of questions aimed at
eliminating incorrect assumptions and
ineffective solutions.
• This “negative” method underlies the
contemporary process of positing and
rejecting hypotheses.
Greek Philosophy: The Ideal Society
Socrates (470 B.C. to 399 B.C.)
Metaphysics
• Belief in immortality of the soul.
People should be concerned with
the “welfare of their souls” rather than with
material possessions and worldly success.
• This idealist perspective strongly influenced
Enlightenment philosophy.
Greek Philosophy: The Ideal Society
Socrates (470 B.C. to 399 B.C.)
Knowledge
• True knowledge is that which
is gained beyond the senses.
The invisible world is the most intelligible.
Physical events are “shadows” of their real
existence.
• The material and spiritual are in inherent
conflict and are irreconciliable (see: dialectic) .
Greek Philosophy: The Ideal Society
Socrates (470 B.C. to 399 B.C.)
Allegory of the Cave (as told by Plato)
• Lifelong prisoners in a cave see
only the shadows of events in the
real world cast upon the wall of the cave they
face.
• A prisoner who was released to see the real
world would have difficulty convincing the
other prisoners of this reality.
Greek Philosophy: The Ideal Society
Socrates (470 B.C. to 399 B.C.)
Lessons of the Cave Allegory:
1. Constantly challenge what
we consider to be reality.
2. Think dialectically (idea, counter-idea,
new idea).
3. Rely upon reasoning over “false” material
indications of reality.
Greek Philosophy: The Ideal Society
Plato (424 B.C. to 328 B.C.)
Knowledge
• If knowledge is gained only from
experience, then because the world is in
constant flux, this knowledge is mere opinion.
• Knowledge gained through abstract reasoning
has more lasting appeal.
• The importance of abstract theorizing.
Greek Philosophy: The Ideal Society
Plato (424 B.C. to 328 B.C.)
Social Structure
• Society is best ruled by the few.
• These “philosopher kings” have
expertise and “love the truth.”
• Society must be diversified to include
farmers, merchants, craftsmen, etc.
• The importance of the elite, even within a
democracy.
Greek Philosophy: The Ideal Society
Aristotle (384 B.C. to 322 B.C.)
The Logic of Science
• Synthesis of philosophy and
science. Using induction from
basic elements to discover reality.
• Development of logic to understand reality
and arrive at sound conclusions.
Greek Philosophy: The Ideal Society
Aristotle (384 B.C. to 322 B.C.)
Four Types of Causes
1. Material: Basic elements of the
event or condition.
2. Formal: Fundamental principles or general
laws.
3. Efficient: The “independent variable” of
cause. That which causes something.
4. Final: The purpose or goal of an event.
Greek Philosophy: The Ideal Society
Summary
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The use of pure reason.
Creation of ideal societies.
Search for absolute truth.
No interest in observations and testing of
hypotheses as we describe these
processes today.
• Plato: “Deduction” from laws.
• Aristotle: “Induction” from events.
Italian Renaissance: Pragmatism
Nicollo Machiavelli (1469-1527)
The Prince
• “How to” book for the dictator.
• Pragmatic, ruthless, strategic.
• Demonstrated the practical,
everyday reality of governing a
large, complex (authoritarian)
society.
• Society as it really is.
Protestant Reformation: Mass Society
Martin Luther (1497-1546)
Social Structure
• Power (interpretation of the
bible) to the people!
• Importance of:
• mass education,
• critical thinking, and
• the active citizen.
Protestant Reformation: Mass Society
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
Social Structure
• Social order is created by
humans.
• Therefore, they can change it.
• Without government, society would be
solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short!
Protestant Reformation: Mass Society
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
• Society as an organism of
interdependent parts, each
working for the benefit of the
whole.
• Importance of observation of
the patterns of human
behavior.
Protestant Reformation: Mass Society
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
• Three sources of conflict:
1. Scarce resources,
2. Distrust of others, and
3. Desire for self glory.
• Everyone needs a certain amount of power
to pursue desires and avoid fears.
• Thus, humans must find a way to maintain
peace and social order.
Protestant Reformation: Mass Society
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
• People will be willing to give up
individual liberties to maintain
peace.
• People need order.
• The “social contract” is an agreement to
obey the laws.
• But, human nature will not allow this to
happen!
• Thus, the need for authoritarian government.
Protestant Reformation: Mass Society
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
• The Leviathan, or strong
central government, will
channel passion into effective
action.
• Government should derive from human
beings, not some divine sense of purpose
(theocracy) or birthright (aristocracy).
• Hobbes was considered to be very liberal.
The Enlightenment
John Locke (1632-1704)
• Well educated, Puritan family.
• Became interested in the “new
science.”
• Emphasized individual rights.
• Agreed with Hobbes about the rise of
government, but thought that God was the
prime factor in politics.
• People are born with God-given rights.
The Enlightenment
John Locke (1632-1704)
• People were rewarded based
upon their industriousness.
• But, people should not
accumulate too much money.
• Otherwise, society could become a horrible
place.
• People need a sense of order.
• How to achieve order while maximizing
individual liberties?
The Enlightenment
John Locke (1632-1704)
• God’s law created a moral
imperative that prevented
humans from pursuing a freefor-all.
• People accepted government out of a sense
of convenience and the need for protection.
• People give up rights to a protective
government.
The Enlightenment
John Locke (1632-1704)
• People came before and
created government.
• Individual freedom!
• Private property!
• Individual freedom is the foundation of
modern liberal democracy.
• Because property was God-given, people
should leave enough for all to have some.
The Enlightenment
John Locke (1632-1704)
• The contract society was
composed of persons with
property.
• The “trustee government”
protected those with property.
• Importance of the separation of church and
state.
• Let God judge, not zealots!
The Enlightenment
John Locke (1632-1704)
• Thus, God gives us rights and
moral imperatives to create a
society for the benefit of
individuals.
• Individuals, however, should not interpret
God’s will.
• Let the law of the land govern people, under
the guidance of God’s moral imperatives.
The Enlightenment
Jean Rousseau (1712-1778)
• Son of an academic elite.
• The Social Contract
• Nature ordained that all men
are equal and that the State is
responsible for public order.
• People are equal and have the same goals.
• No person is above the law.
• Limited power of rulers.
The Enlightenment
Jean Rousseau (1712-1778)
• Champion of a democratic
society.
• The noble savage: Once man
became self-conscious,
society began to decline.
• With human pride comes divorce from
nature.
• Man must now agree to create laws, equally
formed by and binding to all.
The Enlightenment
• The “Enlightenment” refers to writings in
Western Europe and the American Colonies
during the Eighteen century.
• The central theme was to create the perfect
society here on Earth.
• Rejection of Aristocracy and Theocracy.
• Liberal individualism: meaning critical
reasoning and opposition to traditional
authority.
The Enlightenment
• The power of human reason (critical
thinking).
• The importance of science (observation).
• Progress through knowledge.
• Explore new ideas, think for yourself, value
of education and practical knowledge.
• Kant, Hume, Franklin, Jefferson.
The Conservative Reaction
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The need to maintain order.
The importance of the state.
Louis de Bonald: Return to medieval rule.
Emphasis on:
1. Society as an organic unity.
2. Society is superior to individuals.
3. Individuals are abstractions.
4. The parts of society are interdependent.
The Conservative Reaction
• Emphasis on:
5. Institutions are positive entities.
6. Institutions are functional.
7. Small groups are essential.
8. Preserve religious institutions.
9. People need ritual, tradition, worship.
10. Status and hierarchy are essential to
society.
The Revolutions
Political Revolution
• The Age of Reason (Enlightenment).
American Revolution
• Individual freedom, democracy.
French Revolution
• Fall of the aristocracy.
• Fall of anarchy!
Industrial Revolution
• Increase in productivity.
• Urbanization.
The Conservative Reaction
Henri Saint Simon (1760-1825)
• Born into the aristocracy.
• Possible to discover the
structure of society and its laws.
• Reliance upon natural sciences.
• Observation of patterns was essential.
• Look for “organic structure” of society.
• Create a science of social organization.
The Conservative Reaction
Henri Saint Simon (1760-1825)
• Methodology:
1. Observe patterns.
2. Patterns will disclose laws.
3. Laws can be used to build
the good society.
• The study of society should be based upon
the principles of science (see: Newton).
The Conservative Reaction
Henri Saint Simon (1760-1825)
• Social order through science.
• The rule of science as a
“religious force.”
• Humanistic approach to social
order.
• Need for order, discipline, and material
productivity.
The Conservative Reaction
Henri Saint Simon (1760-1825)
• Society would be controlled by:
1. Qualified experts.
2. Persons of position.
• The Planned society.
• The common people could not grasp the
needs of an advanced society.
• Everyone must work and be productive.
Summary
• The need to maintain order versus the rights
of the individual.
• The power of ideas versus the power of
material conditions.
• The importance of reason versus (and) the
importance of observations.
• We can have a science of society.
• We can have a planned society.