Period, life-cycle, cohort and generational
effects on ethnic minority disadvantages
in British labour market (1972-2005)
For UPTAP Conference, Leeds University, 21 March 2007
(ESRC RES-163-25-0003)
Project website: http://www.uptap.net/project17.html
Dr Yaojun Li
Reader in Sociological Analysis
Department of Sociology
Birmingham University
Email: y.li.3@bham.ac.uk
Tel: 0121-4158625
[From 1 April]: Professor of Sociology
Institute for Social Change
Manchester University
Email: Yaojun.Li@Manchester.ac.uk
Professor Anthony Heath
Department of Sociology
Oxford University
Email: anthony.heath@nuffield.ox.ac.uk
Government Acts on racial
discrimination
• The 1965 Race Relations Act, which made discrimination in public
places unlawful, but excluding employment and housing
• The 1968 Race Relations Act, which made it unlawful to
‘discriminate on grounds of colour, race, or ethnic or national origins
in recruitment, training, promotions, dismissals, and terms and
conditions of employment’ (Layton-Henry, 1985)
• The 1976 Race Relations Act, which extended the definition of
discrimination to include indirect discrimination
• The 2000 Race Relations (Amendment) Act, placing a general
duty on public authorities to eliminate unlawful discrimination
• It is a government objective to eliminate discrimination. ‘Though
it is nearly 40 years since the first Race Relations Act, it is clear that
racial discrimination in the labour market still persists,’ says Tony
Blair and he sets the goal ‘that in ten years’ time, ethnic minority
groups should no longer face disproportionate barriers to accessing
and realising opportunities for achievement in the labour market’
(Cabinet Office, 2003).
2
Political and historical contexts
• Net immigration from 1960s onwards
• Main ethnic groups coming at different times and for
different reasons
• Main parties agree on ethnic policies
• Increasingly tough regulations
• Stricter restrictions on recruitment
• Equal opportunities for those who are legally immigrants
• Many of the ethnic groups now 2nd or even 3rd generation
(acculturation)
• Increasing socio-economic integration as one might
expect?
• Lack of research until 1991 Census (SARs); lack of
systematic research using full ethnic/generation
information on employment, class, education, income etc
until THIS ESRC project
3
Academic interests in ethnic
disadvantages
Human Capital
(Mincer,Becker, Borjas)
Ethnic disadvantages
(employment, class, income)
Social Capital
(Putnam)
(Bourdieu,Coleman,
Granovetter&Lin)
4
Human capital assumptions
• Investment in education, training etc to acquire skills, expertise and
know-how
• Knowledge about the local labour market
• Language fluency
Disadvantages faced by 1st generation:
• Negative selection (people with poorer skills opt to immigrate (migrant
labourers, guess workers etc from poorer to richer countries)
• Language deficiency
• Lack of knowledge on local labour market
• Poorer qualifications, and home qualifications unrecognised by by
employers
• Sojourner orientation, hence unwillingness to invest in human capital
• Hostility from the majority population, and from co-workers
• Ethnic ghettos (enclaves)
Disadvantages faced by 2nd generation
• Class legacy (social ethnic mobility)
• Lower qualifications and poorer quality of qualifications (lower % in
Russell group Universities, except Indians and Chinese)
5
Social capital assumptions
• Networks, information, co-ethnic capital
• Immigration process by the 1st generation itself highly
disruptive of existing networks but also a symbol of drive
and determination which might be lost in the 2nd
generation?
• Ethnic geographic concentration builds bonding social
capital, useful for working in co-ethnic businesses,
setting up small businesses
• Ethnic capital externalities (community entrepreneurs,
professionals/managers) provide role models,
aspirations, inspirations for upward mobility, bridging
social capital and to avoid the development of
‘opposition culture’, which has been especially true
amongst successful groups such as Indians
6
Empirical expectations
I:
•
•
•
II:
A1
A2
B1
C1
Optimistic scenario – liberal modernisation, globalisation, integration
Optimistic scenario applies more to 2nd generation than to the 1st;
Optimistic scenario applies more to certain groups such as Indians (or
Chinese);
Optimistic scenario applies under certain labour market conditions such as
buoyant labour market situations such as in the 1972-1980 and 1996-2005
but when there is high unemployment in society, there is more
discrimination by employers, perhaps due to ‘statistical discrimination’
and/or indulgence in taste of direct discrimination.
Pessimistic scenario – does not apply to new, especially visible,
poorly qualified, negatively selected minorities
Is there life cycle improvement?
Did the early arrivals gradually catch up with the reference category, over
their life cycle in the UK (Borjas etc)?
Is this ‘catching up’ process repeated for mid-arrivals, who arrived during
the recession or did these mid-arrivals (especially Pakistani-Bangladeshi)
suffer disproportionately in the longer term too?
Is there generational improvement? How does the 2nd generation compare
with their parent’s generation at a similar stage of the life cycle?
Period effects – negative impacts of increased competition of Threat
Hypothesis?
7
Occupational
attainment
Ref (W British)
Early arrivals
Mid arrivals
Late-arrivals
Life cycle
8
50
W Irish
Indian
W Other
Pak/Bang
B Caribbean
Chinese
10
20
30
40
W British
B African
0
Percent
Probablity of being unemployed for men
1972
1975
1978
1981
1984
1987
1990
1993
1996
1999
2002
2005
Year
Note: Data for Chinese and Pakistani/Bangladeshi not presented before 1983 due to small samples.
Source: Pooled data of GHS/LFS (1972-2005).
9
50
Probablity of being unemployed for women
W Irish
Indian
W Other
Pak/Bang
B Caribbean
Chinese
0
10
20
30
40
W British
B African
1972
1975
1978
1981
1984
1987
1990
1993
1996
1999
2002
2005
Year
Note: Data for Chinese and Pakistani/Bangladeshi not presented before 1983 due to small samples.
Source: Pooled data of GHS/LFS (1972-2005).
10
80
Probability of being in the salariat for men
W Irish
Indian
W Other
Pak/Bang
B Caribbean
Chinese
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
W British
B African
1972
1975
1978
1981
1984
1987
1990
1993
1996
1999
2002
2005
Year
Note: Data for Chinese and Pakistani/Bangladeshi not presented before 1983 due to small samples.
Source: Pooled data of GHS/LFS (1972-2005).
11
80
W Irish
Indian
W Other
Pak/Bang
B Caribbean
Chinese
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
W British
B African
0
Percent
Probability of being in the salariat for women
1972
1975
1978
1981
1984
1987
1990
1993
1996
1999
2002
2005
Year
Note: Data for Chinese and Pakistani/Bangladeshi not presented before 1983 due to small samples.
Source: Pooled data of GHS/LFS (1972-2005).
12
Framework of analysis
Table 1 Age, period and cohort (mean age rounded)
Born 40-9, 1stg arrival bf 1971
(N)
1972-80
31
20,274
Men
1981-96
44
167,430
1972-80
31
20,885
Women
1981-96
44
170,941
1997-05
56
68,327
1997-05
55
57,497
Born 50-9, 1stg arrival 1972-80
(N)
22
17,468
34
166,680
46
69,944
22
17,329
34
173,325
46
73,147
Born 60-9, 1stg arrival 1981-96
(N)
17
3,512
25
178,709
36
80,288
17
3,397
25
186,854
36
88,066
Born 70-9, 1stg arrival 1997-05
(N)
-
19
65,522
27
46,037
-
19
65,795
27
48,350
Age (life cycle) effect (same cohort, different periods or time of survey)
Cohort effect (different age, different cohort, same period);
Period effect (same age, different cohort, different period);
(Heath and Yu, 2005: 197)
13
Table 2
Unemployed rates (%) by cohort, ethnicity, generation, sex and period
Men
1981-96
1997-05
3.9
3.6
3.9
7.1
13.4***
13.7***
4.0
10.3***
6.9**
6.7
12.2†
7.6
8.9
13.4***
16.3***
13.2
12.9
-
1972-80
Born 40-9, 1stg arrival bf 1971
White British (ref)
1st generation BME
2nd generation BME
Born 50-9, 1stg arrival 1972-80
White British (ref)
1st generation BME
2nd generation BME
Born 60-9, 1stg arrival 1981-96
White British (ref)
1st generation BME
2nd generation BME
Born 70-9, 1stg arrival 1997-05
White British (ref)
1st generation BME
2nd generation BME
Women
1981-96
1997-05
4.4
4.8
3.8
5.9
9.8***
10.7***
2.8
6.6***
6.1**
3.6
5.4**
7.9***
6.5
10.3
9.7***
8.4
11.1***
13.1***
2.8
5.2***
6.8***
14.0
25.0***
22.4***
3.9
9.9***
7.5***
12.8
9.4
11.5
22.8***
19.8***
3.6
10.4***
6.5***
17.5
31.9***
6.8
10.5***
12.7***
-
12.7
25.5***
5.2
11.6***
11.4***
1972-80
14
Table 3
Unemployed rates (%) by cohort, full ethnicity/generation, sex and period
Men
1981-96
1997-05
3.9
6.4
2.8
7.7†
0.0
2.5
4.3
6.7
6.4
1.1
2.1
2.5
3.9
4.2
7.1
14.1***
6.1
13.1***
16.9***
11.9***
22.5***
1.4*
8.3
14.0***
5.4*
19.1***
18.5**
14.1***
22.0***
9.5
8.0
4.0
5.8
3.4
12.3***
11.3**
7.1**
19.8***
7.0
7.6*
8.0***
4.4
6.4
8.3*
9.8†
5.0
6.7
23.8***
13.0*
6.0
17.4***
2.1†
8.3
10.3
6.3
8.9
19.4***
10.0
15.6†
14.7*
9.9
23.9***
9.3
15.7***
15.6***
8.3
19.4***
21.5***
11.3**
25.8***
3.8*
11.8**
3.6
5.9
4.4
8.3*
3.0
10.4***
5.8
5.4
4.7
3.7
7.2***
10.9*
4.2
15.0***
0.0
7.2***
1972-80
Born 40-9, 1stg arrival bf 1971
White British (ref)
1st gen White Irish
1st gen White Other
1st gen Black Caribbean
1st gen Black African
1st gen Indian
1st gen Pakistani/Bangladeshi
1st gen Chinese
1st gen Other/Mixed
2nd gen White Irish
2nd gen White Other
2nd gen Black Caribbean
2nd gen Black African
2nd gen Indian
2nd gen Pakistani/Bangladeshi
2nd gen Chinese
2nd gen Other/Mixed
Born 50-9, 1stg arrival 1972-80
White British (ref)
1st gen White Irish
1st gen White Other
1st gen Black Caribbean
1st gen Black African
1st gen Indian
1st gen Pakistani/Bangladeshi
1st gen Chinese
1st gen Other/Mixed
2nd gen White Irish
2nd gen White Other
2nd gen Black Caribbean
2nd gen Black African
2nd gen Indian
2nd gen Pakistani/Bangladeshi
2nd gen Chinese
2nd gen Other/Mixed
Women
1981-96
1997-05
4.4
0.0
1.5
2.9
4.2
9.6*
2.6
4.1
7.4
3.6
2.6
5.9
8.2**
6.5
8.9**
13.8***
9.4***
19.1***
6.6
8.5†
7.7*
5.2
10.1**
14.6*
9.5†
10.2**
2.8
1.2
3.7
1.3
11.1**
9.0***
6.1
7.3**
4.3
1.8
9.6***
2.6
5.6
6.5
8.7
4.9
7.3
11.5†
14.4***
13.9*
8.2
7.8
8.4
8.3
9.1
10.1
10.5
11.1**
17.1***
6.3
11.9*
10.5†
8.8
15.2***
15.8**
11.2***
17.5***
3.3†
11.6**
2.8
4.2
3.3
2.8
10.8***
4.3†
8.6**
6.3
3.4
2.7
2.9
6.8***
10.8**
4.8*
16.0***
2.4
7.0***
1972-80
15
Born 60-9, 1stg arrival 1981-96
White British (ref)
1st gen White Irish
1st gen White Other
1st gen Black Caribbean
1st gen Black African
1st gen Indian
1st gen Pakistani/Bangladeshi
1st gen Chinese
1st gen Other/Mixed
2nd gen White Irish
2nd gen White Other
2nd gen Black Caribbean
2nd gen Black African
2nd gen Indian
2nd gen Pakistani/Bangladeshi
2nd gen Chinese
2nd gen Other/Mixed
Born 70-9, 1stg arrival 1997-05
White British (ref)
1st gen White Irish
1st gen White Other
1st gen Black Caribbean
1st gen Black African
1st gen Indian
1st gen Pakistani/Bangladeshi
1st gen Chinese
1st gen Other/Mixed
2nd gen White Irish
2nd gen White Other
2nd gen Black Caribbean
2nd gen Black African
2nd gen Indian
2nd gen Pakistani/Bangladeshi
2nd gen Chinese
2nd gen Other/Mixed
13.2
25.0*
22.5†
8.3†
14.0
16.3*
8.7***
14.3
35.3***
17.4
32.6***
9.1
21.2***
17.3†
14.5
28.8***
27.7***
14.5
25.3***
9.9
23.0***
3.9
4.2
5.2†
12.5**
13.1***
6.6*
8.4***
6.1
11.5***
3.5
3.4
9.8***
8.0**
4.6
8.6***
5.3
8.6***
12.8
11.8
10.4
11.5
8.9†
11.1***
30.0***
32.0***
18.5***
38.6***
9.3
20.4***
10.6
10.8
22.0***
22.8***
16.6***
33.9***
8.4
17.2***
3.6
2.1
4.6†
15.0***
14.5***
6.5**
16.7***
6.0
8.7***
3.9
4.8*
6.0***
9.2***
3.6
8.4***
3.1
9.4***
-
17.4
17.0
16.5
38.5***
46.9***
28.7***
35.2***
22.2
25.6***
6.8
2.9
6.6
11.4
16.6***
5.2
10.0*
4.1
11.2***
11.9
7.9
15.0***
15.7***
9.3**
14.3***
6.9
14.7***
-
12.7
24.5**
12.8
33.4***
32.1***
19.1***
27.4***
17.5
25.3***
5.2
5.6
6.4†
14.3*
14.4***
13.2***
24.2***
8.0
9.2***
5.1
5.6
13.0***
16.3***
7.4**
13.7***
6.9
13.0***
16
Table 4
Access to salariat (%) by cohort, ethnicity, generation, sex and period
Men
1981-96
1972-80
Women
1981-96
1997-05
1997-05
27.0
24.1
30.4*
39.5
29.0***
28.3***
39.7
31.7***
31.8**
17.8
29.0***
25.7***
30.3
33.6***
36.1***
31.5
37.6**
40.7**
16.0
28.4***
14.3
37.7
31.7***
31.9***
44.4
37.3***
†
40.6
15.3
15.4
16.3
34.5
28.8***
34.6
38.2
31.5***
43.9*
3.8
7.0*
26.3
31.7***
25.2
42.4
34.5***
43.1
4.8
6.1
30.4
24.5***
†
28.9
38.8
31.5***
46.0***
-
14.1
18.1***
36.2
†
33.5
43.0***
-
17.1
15.6
37.9
43.2***
42.8***
1972-80
st
Born 40-9, 1 g arrival bf 1971
White British (ref)
1st generation BME
2nd generation BME
Born 50-9, 1stg arrival 1972-80
White British (ref)
1st generation BME
2nd generation BME
Born 60-9, 1stg arrival 1981-96
White British (ref)
1st generation BME
2nd generation BME
Born 70-9, 1stg arrival 1997-05
White British (ref)
1st generation BME
2nd generation BME
17
Table 5
Access to salariat (%) by cohort, full ethnicity/generation, sex and period
Born 40-9, 1stg arrival bf 1971
White British (ref)
1st gen White Irish
1st gen White Other
1st gen Black Caribbean
1st gen Black African
1st gen Indian
1st gen Pakistani/Bangladeshi
1st gen Chinese
1st gen Other/Mixed
2nd gen White Irish
2nd gen White Other
2nd gen Black Caribbean
2nd gen Black African
2nd gen Indian
2nd gen Pakistani/Bangladeshi
2nd gen Chinese
2nd gen Other/Mixed
Born 50-9, 1stg arrival 1972-80
White British (ref)
1st gen White Irish
1st gen White Other
1st gen Black Caribbean
1st gen Black African
1st gen Indian
1st gen Pakistani/Bangladeshi
1st gen Chinese
1st gen Other/Mixed
2nd gen White Irish
2nd gen White Other
2nd gen Black Caribbean
2nd gen Black African
2nd gen Indian
2nd gen Pakistani/Bangladeshi
2nd gen Chinese
2nd gen Other/Mixed
1972-80
Men
1981-96
1997-05
1972-80
Women
1981-96
1997-05
27.0
12.6***
32.5
11.5**
42.4**
26.5
12.3**
31.3
16.9**
36.4*
20.8
61.0***
42.6***
27.3
39.5
25.3***
41.0
16.6***
45.0
30.6***
20.5***
27.3**
45.4*
25.2***
48.6***
14.7***
51.0
32.0**
12.4***
14.6**
34.8*
39.7
29.3***
38.2
12.7***
37.0
32.6**
23.3***
38.5
53.3***
28.9***
54.6***
20.7***
27.7*
18.0**
44.5
17.8
27.3**
31.2***
33.6***
46.9***
12.6
18.3
27.5*
46.2***
41.7***
26.6*
19.6
30.3
33.1†
43.6***
45.2***
40.9**
18.6***
37.7†
39.7*
43.2***
27.5†
39.9***
42.9***
32.5
23.1†
36.5*
31.5
39.0**
43.3***
45.2***
44.7†
24.9**
43.2
42.1*
30.8
39.7***
37.0
35.7
49.4***
16.0
43.2***
13.6
6.5*
35.3**
21.0
13.6*
37.7
37.3
47.2***
41.1
50.7***
23.6***
16.5***
34.5
50.5***
30.1*
44.3**
27.9***
52.3*
33.8
18.7***
29.2
34.3
44.4
43.6
48.6
65.7***
32.4***
14.8***
36.9
51.1*
37.4
38.3
41.9
43.9
19.4***
46.2
47.5
15.3
39.2***
28.1*
5.6†
9.7
11.8
15.9
26.5†
16.9
15.2
34.5
49.2***
49.5***
56.4***
38.9
16.8***
27.3†
42.9*
38.8†
35.3
43.6***
40.9*
40.7
25.6**
27.3
33.3
35.3
38.2
47.9*
51.2***
40.5
42.3
21.2***
16.5***
44.6
46.1*
52.3*
45.6†
29.9
52.7***
18
Born 60-9, 1stg arrival 1981-96
White British (ref)
1st gen White Irish
1st gen White Other
1st gen Black Caribbean
1st gen Black African
1st gen Indian
1st gen Pakistani/Bangladeshi
1st gen Chinese
1st gen Other/Mixed
2nd gen White Irish
2nd gen White Other
2nd gen Black Caribbean
2nd gen Black African
2nd gen Indian
2nd gen Pakistani/Bangladeshi
2nd gen Chinese
2nd gen Other/Mixed
Born 70-9, 1stg arrival 1997-05
White British (ref)
1st gen White Irish
1st gen White Other
1st gen Black Caribbean
1st gen Black African
1st gen Indian
1st gen Pakistani/Bangladeshi
1st gen Chinese
1st gen Other/Mixed
2nd gen White Irish
2nd gen White Other
2nd gen Black Caribbean
2nd gen Black African
2nd gen Indian
2nd gen Pakistani/Bangladeshi
2nd gen Chinese
2nd gen Other/Mixed
3.8
8.2**
-
26.3
41.2***
45.4***
26.5
37.1**
30.4
14.2***
53.1***
39.4***
39.4*
30.1
20.2***
32.3†
32.6***
21.9
42.9**
25.8
42.4
52.6**
59.7***
34.9
46.2
31.7***
16.8***
46.2
42.3
30.8
44.2
37.9*
55.5***
47.3*
34.5*
38.8
46.5†
14.1
20.0
14.8
26.1*
21.2***
15.1
24.3†
16.7
36.2
76.8***
48.5***
15.6*
24.5**
66.8***
8.1***
63.9***
34.7
29.0
33.5
50.5**
51.1***
32.2†
45.2
45.6***
4.8
5.7
6.2
-
30.4
55.3***
42.7***
30.8
31.5
14.6***
12.8*
26.1
33.2
39.7†
29.3
27.9*
28.2
31.4
26.9
31.6
29.4
38.8
60.6***
58.9***
30.2
36.5
26.2***
14.6***
40.7
33.4*
40.3
44.0**
55.8***
42.8
42.1
59.1**
47.4***
17.1
10.9
15.1
9.1
15.2
14.6
18.2
37.9
60.2***
45.8***
30.0
28.5*
51.7***
16.2**
41.3
48.3***
39.1
39.6
41.8
49.9***
34.2
43.5
43.1*
19
Modeling results: too complicated
to present here
Main findings:
20
My writings on the labour market
•
•
•

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Li, Y. and Heath, A. (2007) ‘Decomposing ethnic disadvantages’, for NEP.
Li, Y. and Heath, A. (2006) ‘Generation, education and labour market attainment of minority ethnic groups
in Britain: A tale of 35 years’, ESRC: Britain Today.
Li, Y. and Heath, A.(2006) ‘Ethnic minority men in British labour market (1972-2005)’, International
Journal of Sociology and Social Policy.
Li, Y. (2006) Assessing Data Needs and Gaps for Researching Ethnic Minority Entrepreneurship, for the
ESRC/DTI/CRE
O’Leary, R. and Li, Y. (2006) ‘Beyond Unemployment: Further differences in Catholic and Protestant
performance in the Northern Ireland labour market’, Belfast: Conference Proceedings on Equality and
Social Inclusion, Working Paper 10.
Li, Y. and Pollert, A. (2006) ‘The unorganized worker in WERS 2004: socio-demographic attributes,
workplace characteristics and work-life experience’, research paper commissioned by DTI and RSS.
Li, Y. (2005) ‘Exploring income differentials: a comparison between human and social capital
approaches’, presentation at the ESDS Government Research Conference, British Academy, 4 Nov.
2005: http://www.ccsr.ac.uk/esds/events/2005-11-04/li.doc
Li, Y. (2005) ‘Social capital, ethnicity and the labour market’, Proceedings of International Conference on
Engaging Community, http://engagingcommunities2005.org/abstracts/Li-Yaojun-final.pdf
Garrat, D. and Li, Y. (2005) ‘The foundations of experimental/empirical research methods’, in B. Somekh
and C. Lewin (eds). Research Methods in the Social Sciences, London: Sage, pp: 198-206.
Li, Y. and R. O’Leary (2004) ‘Progress in reducing Catholic disadvantages in Northern Ireland’, in
Anthony Heath and Sin Yi Cheung (eds), Ethnic Differences across Countries, Oxford: OUP.
Purdam, K. and Li, Y. with Brown, M. and Wathan, J. (2003) A profile of the housing and socio-economic
circumstances of black and minority ethnic people in Wales, Cardiff: National Assembly of Wales.
Li, Y. (2002) ‘Falling off the ladder? Professional and managerial career trajectories and unemployment
experiences’, European Sociological Review, 18(3): 253-70.
Li, Y., Bechhofer, F., McCrone, D., Anderson, M. and Stewart, R. (2002) ‘A Divided Working Class?
Planning and Career Perception in the Service and Working Classes’, Work, Employment and Society,
16(4): 617-636.
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My other writings on social capital
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Li, Y. and D. Marsh (2006) ‘New forms of political participation: searching for expert
citizens and everyday makers’, forthcoming, BJPS.
Li, Y., Savage, M. and Warde, A. (2006) ‘Civic engagement, social network and
social stratification in the UK: a random effects analysis’, under review.
Savage, M., Li, Y. and Tampubolon, G. (2006) ‘Rethinking the politics of social
capital: challenging Tocquevillian perspectives’, in Edwards, R. Franklin, J. and
Holland, J. (eds), Social Capital: Concepts, policy and practice, London: Sage.
Li, Y. (2006) ‘Social capital, social exclusion and wellbeing’, in Angela Scriven and
Sebastian Garman (eds), Public Health: Social context and action, London: Sage.
Li, Y. (2005) ‘Social capital, ethnicity and the labour market’, Proceedings of
International Conference on Engaging Community, jointly organized by the United
Nations and the Government of the State of Queensland in Australia.
http://engagingcommunities2005.org/abstracts/Li-Yaojun-final.pdf
Li, Y., Pickles, A. and Savage, M. (2005) ‘Social Capital and Social Trust in Britain’,
European Sociological Review, 21(2): 109-23.
Li, Y., Savage, M. and Pickles, A. (2003) ‘Social Capital and Social Exclusion in
England and Wales (1972-1999)’, British Journal of Sociology, 54(4): 497-526.
Li, Y., Savage, M. and Pickles, A. (2003) ‘Social Change, Friendship and Civic
Participation’, Sociology Research Online
Li, Y., Savage, M., Tampubolon, G., Warde, A. and Tomlinson, M. (2002) ‘Dynamics
of social capital: trends and turnover in associational membership in England and
Wales: 1972-1999’, Sociological Research Online, Vol. 7, No. 3.
22
A Comparison between the GHS/LFS and SARs in 1991 and 2001 (for men aged 16-64 and women aged 16-59 resident in England and Wales)
1991
2001
GHS/LFS
SARs
GHS/LFS
SARs
51.4
48.6
51.7
48.3
50.6
49.4
51.5
48.5
68.0
7.3
24.7
61.4
8.3
31.3
53.3
12.1
34.7
49.1
12.8
38.1
94.5
0.9
0.3
1.7
1.1
0.3
1.2
93.9
1.2
0.4
1.9
1.1
0.3
1.2
91.5
1.2
1.0
2.1
1.9
0.4
2.0
91.1
1.2
1.0
2.2
1.9
0.5
2.2
72.6
6.9
20.7
69.1
8.3
22.6
73.5
2.7
22.7
71.9
4.2
23.9
33.7
19.1
10.4
16.4
20.3
35.7
29.8
22.4
9.0
15.9
22.9
36.3
36.2
13.3
9.1
27.8
13.7
36.8
38.5
13.1
9.6
16.3
12.6
37.5
93,561
560,650
74,444
1,003,205
Sex
Male
Female
Marital status
Married
Once married
Never married
Ethnicity
White
Black Caribbean
Black African
Indian
Pakistani/Bangladeshi
Chinese
Other
Employment status
Working
Unemployed
Non-employed
Class
Salariat
Routine non-manual
Petty bourgeoisie
Skilled manual
Semi-unskilled manual
Mean hours of work per week
N
23