UNIT 7- SOCIAL INEQUALITY (RACE, ETHNICITY, GENDER, & AGE)
GENDER
HOW WOMEN AND MEN ARE SIMILAR AND DIFFERENT
A. Sex and Gender: Sex refers to the biological characteristics at birth including chromosomes,
anatomy, hormones, and other physical and physiological attributes. Gender refers to learned
attitudes and behaviors that characterize people of one sex or the other. Many people use the
terms “sex” and “gender” interchangeably, but they have distinct meanings. The terms are related,
but sex is a biological designation whereas gender and gender roles are social creations that teach
us to be masculine or feminine.
B. Gender identity and gender roles are learned behavior. Gender identity is the perception of
oneself as either masculine or feminine. Gender roles are defined as the characteristics, attitudes,
feelings, and behaviors that society expects of females and males. Gender stereotypes are the
expectations about how people will look, act, think, and feel because of their sex.
CONTEMPORARY GENDER STRATIFICATION AND INEQUALITY
A. Gender and Family life: Sexism is an attitude or behavior that discriminates against one sex,
usually women, based on the assumed superiority of the other sex. Sexism can be subtle or
blatant. An example of sexism is cyber-sexism where mainly women are harassed through
stalking, death threats, and hate speech. However, boys and men also experience sexism. Gender
stratification is defined as people’s unequal access to wealth, power, status, prestige, and other
valued resources on the basis of their sex. Families have changed with more women working and
domestic labor taken up by husbands more than in the past. However, women shoulder twice as
much child care and housework as men. An example of domestic pressure is the Butler Café
Japan.
B. Gender and education: Teachers and schools send gendered messages to children that follow
them from preschool to college. Boys outperform girls in science and math while girls outperform
boys in reading. Differences are due to socialization and school expectations. Women face
obstacles in academia. Even with a Ph.D., a woman is less likely to be a full-time professor.
C. Gender and the workplace
1. Gender-segregated Work and Wage Gaps: Women are more likely to work in 21 femaledominated occupational categories. Feminine jobs require caregiving, serving others, and
working with people. Men’s occupations draw on manual labor, are relatively autonomous,
and require technical training. Women earn 77 cents for every dollar a man earns. The
average woman must work almost four extra hours every year to make the same wages as a
man. The income difference is called the gender pay gap. Women have made progress in the
professions, although they lag behind as physicians, architects, and dentists.
There is also considerable sex segregation within occupations. Occupations such as law often
are barriers for women, whose need for maternity leave is frowned upon. Gendered
occupations made up of mainly men or women reduce women’s overall lifetime wages and
salaries. For example, the gender pay gap means women with an associate’s degree earn less
than a man with a high school degree. This reality is called a glass ceiling or an invisible
barrier that keeps women from being more successful.
2. Sexual harassment and pregnancy discrimination: Sexual harassment was outlawed in the
1964 Civil Rights Act. However, complaints of sexual harassment continue, and they are the
fastest growing type of employment discrimination complaints. Sexual harassment is defined
as any unwanted sexual advance, request for sexual favors or other conduct of a sexual nature
that makes a person uncomfortable and interferes with her or his work. It includes verbal
behavior (usually pressure for dates or demands for sexual favors), nonverbal behavior
(indecent gestures or materials of a sexual nature), and physical contact (touching, pinching,
and rape). Pregnancy discrimination also continues to be prevalent even after legislation
protecting pregnant women from being fired.
D. Gender and Politics
1. The percentage of women in political positions is growing. However, the percentage of men
in key positions of power is still high. The first woman speaker of the house, Nancy Pelosi,
and presidential candidate Hillary Clinton are proof of women’s changing position in politics.
Still, 83 percent of members of Congress are men.
2. Worldwide, women continue to lag behind men in political positions. The U.S. ranks 66th
worldwide in women’s political empowerment. Women are perceived as supporters instead
of movers and doers. Women are less likely to receive encouragement to run for office from a
political source. Finally, lingering sexism is still common among both men and women.
C. Societal Reactions to Homosexuality: Heterosexism is a belief that heterosexuality is superior to
and more “natural” than homosexuality or bisexuality. Heterosexism pervades societal customs,
laws and institutions. Homophobia, the fear and hatred of homosexuality, is less overt today than
in the past, but is still widespread. Homophobia often manifests itself in gay bashing—threats,
assaults, or acts of violence directed at homosexuals. In 2006, 15 percent of all hate crimes were
against homosexuals, but much gay bashing is not reported. Contradictions in the acceptance of
homosexuals by churches are common. Denominations are often polarized around the issue. The
U.S. Catholic Church’s view on homosexuality, for instance, is often seen as dated.
D. Companies that welcome homosexual workers often enjoy positive public relations and attract
well-educated gay men and lesbians. Numerous municipal jurisdictions, corporations, and smaller
companies now extend more health-care coverage and other benefits to their gay and lesbian
employees and their partners than to unmarried heterosexuals who live together. In 2008, 125 of
the Fortune 500 companies included “gender identity” in their nondiscrimination policies,
compared with almost none in 2002.
V. SOCIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF GENDER INEQUALITY
A. Functionalism: The key ideas around gender for functionalist are gender roles and the role of
sexuality in reproducing society.
1. Division of gender roles includes instrumental and expressive roles. Functionalists see gender
roles as ensuring that society operates smoothly. For men, the instrumental roles include the
role procreator, protector, and provider. Men are supposed to support their family in the
breadwinner role. The expressive role is for women. Expressive roles provide emotional
support and nurturance that sustains the family unit and support the father/husband. These
duties are important for society’s survival.
B. Conflict Theory perceives gender on the basis of inequality between the sexes, with a focus on
capitalism.
1. Gender inequality is embedded into social structure and reproduces exploitative relationships.
In developing countries, women still often have few rights and perform the vast majority of
agricultural work. In industrialized countries, few women penetrate the top ranks in
economic, political, military, and other institutions. In effect, then, most women are still
second-class citizens because men dominate societal resources. Like functionalists, conflict
theorists see sexuality as a key component in a society’s organization, but view sexuality as
reflecting and perpetuating gender inequality. The devaluing of unpaid labor makes
traditional roles profitable for business according to conflict theorists.
C. Feminist Theories
1. Living in a gendered world: Most feminist scholars agree with conflict theorists that sexuality
is linked to gender inequality, but they go further in arguing that male dominance is
especially harmful. Male dominance results in men controlling women’s sexual behavior.
Feminists argue that men and women should be valued equally, that women should have
more control over their lives, and that gender inequality can be remedied by changing
institutions, attitudes, and behaviors. Feminists can be divided in the following camps:
a. Liberal feminists maintain that gender equality can be achieved through civil rights and
equal opportunities. They also maintain that gendered inequality teaches girls and women
to be passive and maternal by tracking women and men into different educational and
employment fields.
b. Radical feminists content that patriarchy is the major reason for women’s oppression
including women’s control over women’s bodies and their sexuality. They point to the
forms of domination including pornography, prostitution, and sexual harassment as
evidence that all women can be potential victims of sexual violence.
c. Multiracial feminism (sometimes referred to as racial ethnic feminism or multicultural
feminism) maintains that race, class, and gender are intertwined to form a hierarchical
stratification system. They focus on a multi-pronged stratification system where white
and minority women fit into the system based on class, sexuality, race, and nationality.
3. Critics argue that feminism underemphasizes the exploitation of men under capitalism. It also
has been critiqued for seeing men as universally oppressive, violent, and sexually
exploitative. Finally, feminists who take a multiracial and class position have difficulty
agreeing on which factors carry more weight and whether some should be given priority.
D. Symbolic Interaction Theory
1. Gender inequality as a social construction: Symbolic interactionists focus on how gender is
socially constructed. From this perspective we “do gender.” Our sexual expression, similarly,
is not inborn but reflects socialization processes and what families and other societal groups
“construct” as appropriate and inappropriate behavior. For interactionists, “people act on the
basis of their perceptions of equality if and when equality is a relevant concern for them.”
For instance, a couple may interpret equal from a religious text. For them, love or respect
may be equality.
a. For instance, the Vienna City Council in Austria launched a campaign to change people’s
perceptions of gender roles. Putting signs in restrooms denoting both men and women for
a baby changing station got the council more complaints than support, showing how
gendered symbols can produce reactions.
RACE/ETHNICTY
RACIAL AND ETHNIC DIVERSITY IN AMERICA
A. Of the almost 309 million U.S. population, 13 percent are foreign born. Between 2000 and 2008,
the foreign born population increased by 22 percent compared with only 6 percent of the native
born (Dockterman and Velasco 2010). As a result, America’s multicultural umbrella includes at
least 150 distinct ethnic or racial groups (U.S. Census Bureau 2010). By 2025, only 58 percent of
the U.S. population is projected to be white—down from 86 percent in 1950. The Significance of
Race and Ethnicity. In an experiment, two researchers sent almost 5,000 fictitious résumés in
response to advertisements for a variety of jobs in Chicago and Boston. They randomly assigned
stereotypically African-American names and names that sounded typically white. The study
found that the white names received more callbacks and the African American applicants
received fewer callbacks. As this example shows, some of us enjoy more opportunities than
others simply because of the color of our skin. Today America remains the world’s largest
immigrant receiving society. One in five Americans is either foreign born or a first-generation
U.S. resident. Our multicultural umbrella includes about 150 distinct ethnic or racial groups
among the more than 304 million inhabitants. By 2025, only 62 percent of the U.S. population
will be white—down from 86 percent in 1950.
THE SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF RACE
1. Race refers to a group of people who share physical characteristics, such as skin color and
facial features, that are passed on through reproduction. Race is a social construct, a societal
invention, that labels people based on physical appearance.
i.
For instance, people of African descent have at least 35 different hues of or shades of
shin tone. The variation in the amount of melanin in brown skin creates differences in
individuals color.
2. An ethnic group is a set of people who identifies with a common national origin or cultural
heritage that includes language, geographic roots, food, customs, traditions, or religion.
Ethnic groups in the United States include, for example, Puerto Ricans, Chinese, Serbs,
Italians, Swedes, Hungarians, Jews, and many others.
3. Racial-Ethnic groups are a category of people that has both distinctive physical and cultural
characteristics. The term “racial-ethnic” incorporates both physical and cultural traits. It
combines race and ethnic groups. The terms can be complicated, such as the difference
between Asian-American, designating a general group, and Chinese American, designating
certain geographic regions, different languages, customs, and traditions.
OUR CHANGING IMMIGRANT MOSAIC
A. Undocumented Immigrants The United States admits more than 1 million immigrants every
year—more than any other nation. A major change has been the rise of unauthorized or
undocumented immigrants—from 180,000 in the early 1980s to 11 million in 2009, representing
34 percent of all foreign-born U.S. residents. About 62 percent of undocumented immigrants are
from Mexico, 15 percent are from Central and Latin America, 7 percent are from Asia, and 16
percent are from other countries.
B. Attitudes about immigration. The percentage of Americans who are foreign born today is 11
percent compared to 15 in 1900. In 1900, almost 85 percent of immigrants came from Europe;
now immigrants come primarily from Asia (mainly China and the Philippines) and Latin America
(mainly Mexico). Undocumented immigrants have increased from less than a million in the 1980s
to 12 million today. Attitudes about immigrants have always been controversial. 40 percent of
those surveyed say immigrants make important contributions to the U.S. while others feel they
have increased taxes and crime. African Americans often believe immigrants have decreased job
opportunities. Many American have strong opinions about undocumented immigrants, with 78
percent of Americans feeling that people now in the country illegally should have a chance at
citizenship and that U.S. policies should give temporary “guest worker” visas to noncitizens who
want to work in the United States.
1. An example of how illegal immigration changes society is the guest worker program. The
workers are permitted to work in the U.S., but their powerlessness, low wages, and living
conditions mean they are often exploited by employers.
C. Is Immigration Beneficial or Harmful? Many Americans do not think immigrants, especially those
who send money back to their country, pay their share of taxes, and overload schools and welfare
systems, while others believe that young immigrant workers use few services. Immigrants are
also often exploited by labor recruiters and end up in abject poverty. According to supporters, the
nation benefits from low wage workers who clean homes and business offices, toil as nannies and
busboys, serve as nurses’ aides, and pick fruit and vegetables. New workers renew the economy
and provide profits and low costs services and products.
DOMINANT AND MINORITY GROUPS
A. What is a Dominant Group? A dominant group is any physically or culturally distinctive group
that has the most economic and political power, the greatest privileges, and the highest social
status. As a result, it can treat other groups as subordinate. Dominant groups aren’t necessarily the
majority in size. From the seventeenth century until 1994, about 10 percent of the population in
South Africa that was white had almost complete control of the black population. Because of
apartheid, a formal system of racial segregation, the black inhabitants couldn’t vote, lost their
property, and had minimal access to education and politics. Apartheid ended in 1994, but most
black South Africans are still a minority group because whites “hold the best jobs, live in the
most expensive homes, and control the bulk of the country’s capital”
B. What is a Minority Group? A minority group is a group of people who may be subject to
differential and unequal treatment because of their physical, cultural, or other characteristics, such
as gender, sexual orientation, religion, ethnicity, or skin color. Minority groups may be larger
than a dominant group, but they have less power, privilege, and social status.
C. Patterns of dominant-Minority group relations.
1. Genocide is the systematic attempt to kill all members of a particular ethnic, religious,
political, racial, or national group. Genocide increased in the 20th century. According to the
United Nations examples of the genocide during the period include the killing of 1.5 million
Armenians in Turkey; Stalin’s killing of over 50 million in the Ukraine and Eastern Europe;
the killing 300,000 Chinese by the Japanese Army; the Nazi holocaust; Pol Pot’s killing of
over 2 million Cambodians; Massacres of Tutsis by Hutus in Rwanda; and the murders of
Muslims by Serb’s in former Yugoslavia.
2. Internal Colonialism refers to groups that are treated unequally within the same nation. This
includes African Americans who were controlled and exploited by the dominant group in the
U.S. Segregation is defined as physical and social separation of the dominant or minority
group or groups. In the case of African Americans lasted legally or dejure until the 1960s.
Defacto or voluntary segregation continues to reflect issues of discrimination.
3. Assimilation is the process of conforming to the culture of the dominant group. Assimilation
occurs through intermarriage and adopting the language and values of the dominant group.
4. Pluralism is a society where minority groups exist separately from the dominant culture but
also enjoy equal access to resources across all institutions. Americans could be seen as
pluralist or multicultural due to the vast numbers of ethnic and racial groups that make it up.
5. An example of how pluralism can be controversial is Geno’s Restaurant in Philadelphia.
The owners had a sign up: “THIS IS AMERICA, PLEASE SPEAK ENGLISH” when
ordering. The debate over assimilationist and pluralist shows the tensions found in many parts
of America over immigration. Assimilationists believe America is a melting pot with a
dominant Euro-American culture, that immigrants should adapt to U.S. society, and education
and culture through assimilation increases economic success. Pluralism believes the U.S. is a
tossed salad where groups maintain their distinctive characteristics. Pluralists believe
America is composed of groups that preserve their original cultural diversity, and the country
should adapt to the changing composition of immigrants.
SOURCES OF RACIAL-ETHNIC FRICTION
A. Racism is a set of beliefs which claims that one’s own racial group is “naturally” superior to other
groups. It is a way of thinking about racial and ethnic differences that justifies and preserves the
social, economic, and political interests of powerful groups.
B. Prejudice is an attitude, positive or negative, toward people because of their group membership.
We often prejudge those who are different from us in race, ethnicity, or religion Prejudice is not
one-sided because all of us can be prejudiced, but minorities, rather than whites, are typically
targets of stereotypes and ethnocentrism.
i.
A stereotype is an oversimplified or exaggerated generalization about a category of
people. Stereotypes can be positive (“All African Americans are great athletes”) or
negative (“All African Americans are lazy”).
ii . Ethnocentrism is a belief that one’s own culture, society, or group is inherently superior
to others. If we are ethnocentric, we view “outsiders” not only as different from us but
also reject them as strange, deviant, and inferior: “Our customs, our laws, our food, our
traditions, our music, our religion, our beliefs and values, and so forth, are somehow
better than those of other societies”
iii. Stereotypes and ethnocentrism can result in displacing our anger and aggression on
scapegoats, individuals or groups whom people blame for their own problems or
shortcomings (“They didn’t hire me because the company wants blacks” or “I didn’t get
into college X because Asians Americans are at the top of the list”). Minorities are easy
targets because, like other scapegoats, they are typically very visible in physical
appearance and too powerless to strike back.
C. Discrimination is an act that treats people unequally or unfairly because of their group
membership. Discrimination encompasses all sorts of actions, ranging from social slights (such as
not inviting minority coworkers to lunch) to rejection of job applications and hate crimes.
Discrimination is subtle (such as not sitting next to someone) or blatant (such as racial slurs), and
occurs at individual and institutional levels.
1. Individual discrimination is harmful action directed intentionally on a one-to-one basis by a
member of a dominant group against a member of a minority group. In a recent survey, for
example, more than half of blacks said that they face everyday discrimination when eating in
restaurants, shopping, renting an apartment, buying a house, or applying for a job.
2. Institutional discrimination is when a minority group experiences unequal treatment and
opportunities due to the everyday operations of a society’s laws, rules, policies, practices, and
customs.
D. Relationships between prejudice and discrimination. Prejudiced persons who discriminate are
active bigots. Persons who are prejudiced and do not purposefully discriminate are called timid
bigots. Individuals who are not prejudiced but discriminates is a fair weather liberal. They are not
prejudiced but may be a member of a club that discriminates. Individuals who are not prejudiced
and do not discriminate are known as unprejudiced nondiscriminators.
1. A good example of modern day racism and discrimination is the movie “Crash”. Filmed in
Los Angeles, the characters in “Crash” reflect the racial tensions between immigrants of all
races including white and black. The film shows how racism occurs in modern society.
SOCIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF RACIAL-ETHNIC INEQUALITY
A. Functionalism sees the importance of criticizing immigrants for not becoming Americanized
quickly enough.
1. Stability and Cohesion. A harmonious focus between existing society and its newcomers is
important. Functionalists focus on assimilation and see that immigrants must assimilate by
adopting the dominant group’s values, goals for success, and, especially, language.
Otherwise, a society will experience discord and conflict. Immigrants and racial and ethnic
inequality also maintain opportunities for dominant groups who are fringe bankers. These
groups offer low-income residents pawn shops and check cashing services. Functionalists
acknowledge that racial stratification can be dysfunctional.
B. Conflict Theory
1. Economic and Social Class Inequality. Conflict theorists see ongoing strife, not harmony,
between dominant and minority groups. Dominant groups try to protect their power and
privilege while subordinate groups struggle to gain a larger share of societal resources. Once
a system of racial oppression is put in place (as through internal colonialism), racial
hierarchies are supported and perpetuated through economic inequality and the resulting
social class differences.
i.
Conflict theorists focus on differences in race and the labor market. The primary labor
market is most often occupied by dominant groups with jobs providing benefits and job
security.
ii. The secondary labor market is most often composed of workers from minority groups.
Secondary labor market jobs are easily replaced, with few benefits, and often with poor
working conditions.
C. Feminist Theories are based on the reality that most of the low-paid employees are women, and
predominantly minority women. For feminist scholars, such segregation of minority women
reflects gendered racism.
1. Gendered Racism is based on combine and cumulative effects of inequality due to racism and
sexism. Minority women face two types of discrimination. If we add social class into the mix,
minority women may experience triple oppression. White women often engage in
exploitation of Latino women, using them as maids and housekeepers.
D. Interactionism perceives racism as a learned behavior.
1. Labeling, Selective Perception, and the Contact Hypothesis. Humans learn attitudes toward
dominant and minority groups through labeling and selective perception. Studies suggest that
labeling some Latinos as social problems can lead society to ignore their broader
contributions to society. They also focus on the contact hypothesis, which states that the more
people get to know members of a minority group personally, the less likely they are to be
prejudiced against that group.
MAJOR RACIAL AND ETHNIC GROUPS IN THE UNITED STATES
A. European Americans: A Declining Majority
1. Diversity the English immigrants settled the first colonies in Massachusetts and Virginia.
Other white Anglo-Saxon Protestants (WASPs), that included people from Wales and
Scotland, quickly followed. Most of these groups spoke English. Some were affluent, but
many were poor or had criminal backgrounds. Germans made the largest group of Anglos to
America, followed by Irish, and English.
2. Constraints and Strengths. The WASPs were mainly protestant except Irish Catholics which
were of characterized as irresponsible and shiftless. Eventually, immigrant from Europe
succeeded in the U.S. The average White household income is $52,000.
B. Latinos: A Growing Minority
1. Diversity. About one in three Americans is a member of a racial or ethnic group, but one of
every two newcomers is now Latino, making it the fastest-growing minority group. Latinos
trace their roots back to Spanish and Mexican settlers or those who came to U.S. in the 20th
and the beginning of the 21st centuries. Over 60 percent of Latinos in the U.S. are from
Mexico.
2. Constraints and Strengths. Latinos are entering mainstream America while many continue to
face obstacles. With a median household income of $37,000, wages for Latinos are 72
percent of White American’s wages.
C. African Americans: A Major Source of Diversity
1. Diversity. African Americans make up 13 percent of the population and have a history of
oppression in the U.S. There are native-born blacks who have black, white, American Indian,
or Latino ancestors; recent immigrants from Africa; and native-born Africans. Among
foreign-born blacks, nearly two-thirds are from the Caribbean or another Latin American
country, nearly one-third were born in Africa, and the remainder is from Europe and other
regions.
2. Constraints and Strengths. The effects of 350 years of slavery and legal segregation are still
evident. Compared with 12 percent of the general population, 24 percent of African
Americans live in poverty. At $32,000 the median family income of African Americans is the
lowest of all racial-ethnic groups. Blacks who earned at least a high school diploma increased
from 26 percent in 1964 to 80 percent in 2005. Similarly, during this same period, those with
a college degree increased from 4 percent to 18 percent.
D. Asian Americans: A Model Minority?
1. Diversity. Making up 5 percent of the population, Asian Americans are seen as model
minorities because of their high income and levels educational obtainment. They are diverse
with backgrounds, dialects, and cultures from 26 countries.
2. Constraints and Strengths. The median income for Asian Americans is $64,000. They also
have higher education levels than any other group with one out of two with a college degree.
Asian Americans tend to have large families and run businesses.
E. American Indians: A Growing Nation.
1. Diversity. Native Americans have an expanding population. With only 1.5 percent of the U.S.
population, they are predicted to grow rapidly due to a young population and high birth rate.
Like Asian Americans, American Indians are very heterogeneous. Of the more than 560
federally recognized tribes, those numbering over 100,000 include the Cherokee, Navajo,
Chippewa, and Sioux. Tribes speak 150 native languages (although many are quickly
vanishing) and vary widely in their religious beliefs and cultural practices.
2. Constraints and Strengths. Native Americans have experienced centuries of subjugation,
exploitation, and political exclusion. Almost 27 percent of American Indians live below the
poverty level compared with 12 percent of the general population. The median household
income of American Indians is slightly higher than that of black households, but lower than
any other racial-ethnic group. The average income for Native Americans is $33,800.
Unemployment and poverty are higher on reservations.
F. Middle Eastern Americans: An Emerging Group
1. Diversity. Middle East cultures are diverse and complex combinations. The Middle East
encompasses about thirty countries that include Armenia, Turkey, Israel, Iran, Afghanistan,
Pakistan, and 22 Arab nations (such as Algeria, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and the United
Arab Emirates).
2. Constraints and Strengths. Middle Eastern Americans tend to be better educated and
wealthier than other Americans. Arabs are nearly twice as likely as the average U.S. resident
to have a college degree—41 percent compared with 24 percent. The median income for an
Arab family, $52,300, is about $2,300 more than the median income of all U.S. families.
Most Middle Eastern Americans are well integrated into American life. Besides their high
educational levels, three out of four speak only English at home or speak English “very well,”
more than half are homeowners, 75 percent of the men are in the labor force, and more than
half of those born in another country are U.S. citizens For decades, many Middle Eastern
Americans have encountered prejudice and discrimination in the workplace, school, and
public places. Even years after the 9/11 terrorist attacks, many Middle Eastern Americans are
adopting self-imposed restrictions to prevent threats of violence.
INTERRACIAL AND INTERETHNIC RELATIONSHIPS
A. Growing Multiracial Diversity. One in 40 Americans, especially Hawaiians, is the product of two
or more racial groups. Hawaii has the largest proportion of people—21 percent—who identify
themselves as two or more races, followed by Alaska and California (5 percent each).
1. Interracial Dating and Marriage. It is no longer unusual to date someone from a different
racial or ethnic group—48 percent of Americans overall say they have done so, including 69
percent of Latinos, 52 percent of blacks, and 45 percent of whites. Laws against
miscegenation, marriage or sexual relations between a man and a woman of different races,
existed in America as early as 1661. It wasn’t until 1967, in the U.S. Supreme Court’s Loving
v. Virginia decision, that antimiscegenation laws were overturned nationally. Intermarriage
depends on many interrelated factors—both micro and macro—that include everyday contact
and changing attitudes. For example, we tend to date and marry people that we see on a
regular basis. Racial-ethnic intermarriages have increased slowly—from 0.7 percent of all
marriages in 1970 to nearly 8 percent in 2010. The higher the educational level, the greater
the potential for intermarriage because highly educated minority members often attend
integrated colleges and their workplaces and neighborhoods are more integrated than in the
past. The racial-ethnic groups that are the most assimilated are the most likely to intermarry.
AGE
Elder Abuse and Neglect can include physical, psychological, and sexual abuse; neglect; financial
exploitation; isolation from family and friends; deprivation of basic necessities such as food and heat;
and not administering needed medications. An estimated 93% of elderly abuse is not reported. Elderly
abusers are most often adult children (53 percent), spouses (19 percent), or other family members (18
percent). Abusers often are using drugs and alcohol. Shared residence is another reason for abuse.
Micro causes are things like drugs and alcohol. Macro causes include a shared residence.
OUR AGING SOCIETY
A. When is “Old”? In the U.S. we are deemed old at age 65 and later because we can retire and
become eligible for Medicare and Social Security benefits. The young old includes ages 65-74.
The old-old includes ages 75-84. Oldest old is age 85 and older. Gerontologists are scientists
who study the biological, psychological, and social aspects of aging—emphasize that the aging
population should not be lumped into one group.
B. Life Expectancy and Multigenerational Families. As people live longer, an average of 78 years
today, they are able to spend time with grandchildren and great-grandchildren. Life expectancy is
the average length of time people of the same age will live. That age is 81 for women and 75 for
men.
Over 12 percent of the U.S. is over the age of 65 and the number of centenarians (people aged
100 or more) is increasing. Longer life spans mean multigenerational families. People in their
middle years take care of elderly parents and young children. This is known as the sandwich
generation.
C. Global Graying. In 2030, 12 percent of the planet’s population (about 975 million people) will be
65 or older, up from 7 percent currently. Rapid aging means that the United States, like Europe
and Canada, is struggling to meet the needs for health care, social security, and other costs. States
are adapting by accommodating seniors. For instance, in Cobb County, Georgia, zoning has been
changed to a residential senior living zoning district for access to shopping.
D. Jeanne-Louise Calment reached the oldest authenticated age in history at 122. The French woman
lived a wealthy existence, enjoying smoking and chocolate.
SOCIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF FAMILY AND AGING
A. Functionalism
1. Stability and Activity. For functionalists, the family is essential for the survival of society.
Families provide vital functions such as procreation, socialization, and economic security
promoting social stability. Functionalist theories on aging focus on activity theory which
proposed that many older people remain engaged in numerous roles and activities, including
work, and that those who do so adjust better to aging and are more satisfied with their lives.
B. Conflict Theory
1. Inequality, Social Class, and Power. For conflict theory, family can be a way to increase
wealth inequality. Wealth is passed down through inheritances. This reduces the likelihood
that all families have equal opportunities or power to compete for resources such as
education, decent housing, and health care. Conflict theorists question whether the
government supports families.
C. Feminist Theories.
1. Gender Roles and Patriarchy. Feminists focus on patriarchy as central to the family.
Women’s unpaid labor and lower wages support male dominance. Men hold power of
resources, power, and privilege along with control over women and children. Feminists point
out that single women can provide the same types of support as two-parent households and
that racism, sexism, and classism oppress women.
D. Interactionism
1. Learning Family and Aging Roles. Symbolic interactionists focus on the learning of family
roles. Exchange theory is based on the process of seeking to minimize costs and maximizing
rewards in social relationships. In mate selection, people “trade” a variety of resources—such
as wealth, intelligence, good looks, youth, and status—for more, better, or different assets.
Continuity theory argues that adults can substitute satisfying new roles to those they’ve lost.
i. An example of symbolic interactionist perspective on family and meaning is the
quinceañera. This ritual is a rite of passage for girls. They celebrate a girl’s entrance into
adulthood at age 15.