Toulmin analysis of arguments over
censorship in science
Components of Argument:
Claim
What’s your point?
Grounds
What do you have to go on?
Qualifier
How sure are you?
Warrant
How did you get from grounds to claim?
Backing
What supports your warrant?
Rebuttal
Are there any exceptions to your claim?
Beverly Dale is
entitled to vote at
town meetings.
Claim
Beverly Dale is a local
taxpayer.
Grounds
Beverly Dale is
entitled to vote at
town meetings.
Claim
Beverly Dale is a local
taxpayer.
Grounds
So, presumably
Beverly Dale is
entitled to vote at
town meetings.
Qualifier
Claim
Warrant
All local taxpayers are
normally entitled to vote at
town meetings.
Beverly Dale is a local
taxpayer.
Grounds
So, presumably
Beverly Dale is
entitled to vote at
town meetings.
Qualifier
Claim
Backing
Warrant
Relevant legal and
constitutional statues
provide for suffrage.
All local taxpayers are
normally entitled to vote at
town meetings.
Beverly Dale is a local
taxpayer.
Grounds
So, presumably
Beverly Dale is
entitled to vote at
town meetings.
Qualifier
Claim
Backing
Warrant
Relevant legal and
constitutional statues
provide for suffrage.
All local taxpayers are
normally entitled to vote at
town meetings.
Beverly Dale is a local
taxpayer.
So, presumably
Beverly Dale is
entitled to vote at
town meetings.
Qualifier
Grounds
Unless she is a noncitizen, a
minor, a lunatic, or other
disqualified person.
Rebuttal
Claim
Backing
Warrant
Grounds
Qualifier
Rebuttal
Claim
Read, Timothy D. , et al., 2003. “The genome
sequence of Bacillus anthracis Ames and
comparison to closely related bacteria,” Nature
423, 81-86 (1 May 2003).
“The life science community should take the lead
in partnering with national security professionals to
draft guidelines for identifying research of concern
and weighing the benefits to national security
against the cost to open communication of future
life science discovery.”
J. B. Petro, Joint Military Intelligence College,
Bolling AFB, Washington, DC.
“Placing major new barriers in the path of the free
flow of scientific information will ultimately
undermine our best defenses against bioterrorism
and, ironically compromise the public health that
we are trying to protect.”
Abigail Salyers, president of the American Society
for Microbiology, Washington, DC.
Censorship of scientific
communication would
yield a false sense of
security from bioterrorism.
Claim
Effective public
response to inhalation
anthrax was delayed
because of lack of
knowledge about anticlumping agents.
Grounds
So, it is reasonable to
conclude that
Qualifier
Censorship of scientific
communication would
yield a false sense of
security from bioterrorism.
Claim
The public depends on science for lifesaving and life-improving therapeutics.
Warrant
Effective public
response to inhalation
anthrax was delayed
because of lack of
knowledge about anticlumping agents.
Grounds
So, it is reasonable to
conclude that
Qualifier
Censorship of scientific
communication would
yield a false sense of
security from bioterrorism.
Claim
Since its inceptions science has served the public.
Backing
The public depends on science for lifesaving and life-improving therapeutics.
Warrant
Effective public
response to inhalation
anthrax was delayed
because of lack of
knowledge about anticlumping agents.
Grounds
So, it is reasonable to
conclude that
Qualifier
Censorship of scientific
communication would
yield a false sense of
security from bioterrorism.
Claim
Salyers, A., 2002. Science, Censorship, and Public Health, Science, 296, 26
April 2002, p. 617.
Scientists should weigh the
benefits to national security
against the cost to open
communication.
Claim
Documents recovered from
an al Qaida training camp
in Afghanistan in 2001
included research articles
on the production of
Bacillus anthracis.
Grounds
So, it is reasonable
to conclude that
Qualifier
Scientists should weigh the
benefits to national security
against the cost to open
communication.
Claim
National security community regards possession of research
publications on biological toxins as a sign of terrorist intent.
Warrant
Documents recovered from
an al Qaida training camp
in Afghanistan in 2001
included research articles
on the production of
Bacillus anthracis.
Grounds
So, it is reasonable
to conclude that
Qualifier
Scientists should weigh the
benefits to national security
against the cost to open
communication.
Claim
National security community has a need to restrict
access to science for the public safety.
Backing
National security community regards possession of research
publications on biological toxins as a sign of terrorist intent.
Warrant
Documents recovered from
an al Qaida training camp
in Afghanistan in 2001
included research articles
on the production of
Bacillus anthracis.
Grounds
So, it is reasonable
to conclude that
Qualifier
Scientists should weigh the
benefits to national security
against the cost to open
communication.
Claim
Petro, James B., and David A. Relman, 2003. Understanding Threats to
Scientific Openness, Science, 302, 12 December 2003, p. 1898.