Biology 11
Cram Sheet: Long Exam 3 (Part 1)
Feb. 19, 2012
I. Cells and Tissues
A. Epithelial Tissue
 Used mainly for lining body cavities, vessels, and integument. Tightly packed.
 Can be simple (uniseriate) or stratified (multiseriate).
 Attached to a basement membrane.
 Joined together via:
1. Tight junctions: Prevent leakage of fluids. Akin to a belt.
2. Desmosomes: Rivet cells together. Utilize keratin fibers. Common in muscle cells.
3. Gap junctions: Channels allowing cytoplasmic movement.
 Subdivided into four major types:
1. Squamous:
a. Simple: Allow diffusion to occur.
b. Stratified: Adapted to withstand mechanical abrasion; cells near basement
membrane constantly undergo mitotic division; occur at esophagous,
anorectal region, etc.
2. Columnar: (Simple/Stratified): Highly absorptive.
3. Cuboidal: Used for excretion. (NOTE: Excrete is to REMOVE)
4.* Glanduar: Used for secretion. (NOTE: Secrete is to PRODUCE)
a. Exocrine (has ducts)
b. Endocrine (ductless)
c. Mixed (e.g. Pancreas cells)
5.* Transitional: Allows for stretching; stratified; occurs at bladder and urinary tract.
 Important terms:
1. Mesothelium: Lining of serous (body) cavities and visceral (internal) organs.
2. Endothelium: Line blood and lymph vessels.
B. Connective Tissue
 Can be fixed (e.g. Mesenchymal cells) or wandering (e.g. Eosinophil)
 Cells are more paucous (smaller); greater intercellular space.
 Cells are embedded in an extracellular matrix of fibers (i.e. collagen) and ground substance.
 Ground substance is amorphous (no definite form) and composed of glycosaminoglycans (e.g.
Chondroitin sulfate).
 Fibers come in three flavors:
1. Collagenous fibers (white): Inelastic, but do not break easily.
2. Elastic fibers (yellow): Elastic and very rubbery.
3. Reticular fibers (branched): Bind connective tissue to adjacent tissue.
 Six main types:
1. Fibrous: Dense (collagen); make up tendons (muscle to bone) and ligaments
(bone to bone).
2. Loose: Most abundant; have all 3 fibers; bind epithelial tissue to underlying tissue.
a. Fibroblasts: Produce extracellular matrix and collagen.
b. Macrophages: Protection from debris and pathogens.
3. Adipose: Store fat; for insulation and reserve energy.
4. Cartilage: Relatively elastic; Chondrocytes produce Chondroitin sulfate.
a. Hyaline cartilage: Line joint surfaces and rib ends.
b. Elastic cartilage: Very flexible (e.g. ears)
c. Fibrous or Fibrocartilage: Absorbs compression (e.g. intervertebral disks)
5. Bone: Ossified; composed of hydroxyapatite; osteoblasts secrete collagen matrix.
6. Blood: Composed of plasma and other components.
a. Plasma: Majority of blood (matrix); composed of fibrinogen, albumin, globulin.
b. Erythrocytes: RBCs; nucleated (EXCEPT in mammals); transport O2
c. Leukocytes: WBCs; various functions
i. Neutrophils: Target pathogens and bacteria
ii. Eosinophils: Target helminthic (worm) parasites
iii. Basophils: Anti-allergen (histamine)
iv. Monocytes: Produce macrophages
v. Lymphocytes: Trigger immune response
d. Platelets: Coagulate blood; called thrombocytes (EXCEPT in mammals,
fishes); formed from megakaryocyte
C. Muscle Tissue
 Most abundant tissue in the body.
 Used for movement.
 Three major types:
1. Smooth: Unstriated; involuntary; have both sympathetic and parasympathetic
innervation; functions in movement of substances in lumens
2. Skeletal: Striated; voluntary; syncitial (mutinucleated); single motor nerve
3. Cardiac: Striated; involuntary; branched; have both sympathetic and parasympathetic
innervation; involved in pumping blood
D. Nervous Tissue
 Senses stimuli and transmits signals
 Nerve cell = neuron
 3 types of neurons:
1. Sensory (afferent; AFFECT)
2. Motor (efferent; EFFECT)
3. Interneuron (connects other neurons)
 Further reading: Neuron anatomy (Dendrite, axon, synapse, node of Ranvier, Schwann cell)
Review: Test yourself
I. Analogy:
1. Cartilage : __________________ :: Bone : Hydroxyapatite
2. _________________ : White :: Elastic fibers : _______________
3. _______________ : Reptiles, Amphibians, Birds :: Platelets : Mammals
4. Eosinophils : __________________ :: _______________ : Inflammatory response (Histamine)
5. Smooth muscle : ______________________________ :: Skeletal muscle : Motor nerve (innervation)
II. Identification:
1. Type of epithelium that is adapted to stretching:
2. Components of plasma: Globulin, Fibrinogen, ____________
3. Produces collagen and extracellular matrix in loose connective tissue:
4. Ground substance in connective tissue is composed of this (i.e. Chondroitin sulfate):
5. Produces Chondroitin sulfate in cartilage:
6. Type of cartilage found at joint surfaces and rib edges:
7. Type of epithelial tissue adapted to mechanical abrasion:
8. Leukocyte that targets pathogens and bacteria:
9. Type of fiber that binds connective tissue to adjacent tissue:
10. Utilize keratin fibers to bind epithelial cells together:
Further Reading: Animal body plans (spherical, radial, biradial, bilateral, metamerism)
II. Support and Protection
A. Integumentary System (Skin)
 Invertebrate Integument:
1. Plasma membrane: Unicellular; utilize diffusion; nutrients are dissolved
a. Pellicle: Thick protein coat in some protozoa
2. Epidermis: Multicellular; Uniseriate (columnar epithelial)
a. Cuticle: Forms waterproof exoskeleton in invertebrates (i.e. arthropods)
b. Mucous glands: Secrete CaCO3 in molluscs (found on mantle).
c. Mantle: Epidermis of molluscs; usually forms a CaCO3 shell.
 More complex integument: Cuticle; Epidermis (uniseriate); Connective tissue (loose); Iridocytes
(reflecting cells); Thicker layer of connective tissue; found in squids,
octopi, cuttlefish
 Specialization of Arthropod integument:
o Most complex invertebrate integument
1. Setae – hair-like extensions
2. Epicuticle – non-chitinous (protein and lipids)
3. Procuticle – Protein and chitin
4. Epidermis and Hypodermis
5. Basement Membrane
o 2 Types of cuticle:
1. Calcified – deposition of CaCO3 (procuticle)
2. Sclerotized – cross-linkages bind proteins forming sclerotin (procuticle lamellae)
o Molting: (Mnemonic: My toes dig new epic protection from calcium and sclerenchyma)
1. Epidermal cell undergo mitosis
2. Epidermal enzyme digests procuticle
3. Procuticle is absorbed
4. New epicuticle and procuticle form
5. Cuticle thickens and either calcifies or sclerotizes
 Vertebrate Integument:
o Further reading: Integument and derivatives (epidermal and dermal)
o Epidermal Layers (Strata): (Mnemonic: Caught Lucy’s Grandma Spilling Basalt)
1. Corneum
2. Lucidum
3. Granulosum
4. Spinosum
5. Basale
6. *Basement membrane
o Epidermis: stratified squamous tissue; NO blood vessels; outer layers undergo
keratinization
 Cornified Cells: Stratum corneum cells resistant to abrasion and water diffusion
o Dermis: dense connective tissue; nourish epidermis; body’s first line of defense
(macrophages and lymphocytes)
o Hair: protection of epidermis; Further reading: Anatomy
o Nails: keratinized cells; formed at the lunula; cuticle composed of eponychium
o 4 types of Skin Glands:
1. Sebaceous (Oil): Usually connected to hair follicles; moistens hair, waterproofs skin
2. Sweat (Sudoriferous):
i. Eccrine: Hairless regions; cool the body
ii. Apocrine: Larger; sweat contains fatty acids and proteins; produce odors
(via bacteria)
3. Ceruminious: Modified sweat glands; produce earwax (cerumen)
4. Mammary: Produce milk
o Two Types of Coloration:
1. Structural: Produced by tissue ITSELF reflecting certain wavelengths
2. Pigments (biochromes): Reflect light rays
 Types of Chromatophores:
a. Melanophores/Melanocytes (melanin)
b. Xanthophores (carotenoids)
c. Iridophores (purine crystals: silvery/metallic)
B. Skeletal System
 Hydrostatic Skeleton: Supports body form; provides resistance to muscle contractions; from
either gastrovascular cavity or coelom (both fluid-filled)
o Muscular Hydrostats: incompressible tissues (constant volume); complex
arrangement (e.g. Elephant trunk)
 Rigid Skeleton: Jointed (usually); attached muscles
o Exoskeleton: External; may be made up of CaCO3 (molluscs) or chitin (arthropods)
o Endoskeleton: Found in echinoderms and vertebrates; bone and cartilage; does not
limit organism’s growth; supports greater weight
 Notochord: Supportive axial rod in protochordates and vertebral embryos;
vacuolated cells surrounded by fibrous sheaths; replaced by
vertebral column (EXCEPTION: Jawless vertebrates such as
lancelets)
 Cartilage: Resists compression; pliable (flexible); main skeletal component
of jawless vertebrates and elasmobranchs (e.g. Sharks, rays,
skates)
 Bone: Living tissue with calcium salts in extracellular matrix
a. Endochondral (Replacement): Replaces cartilage
b. Intramembranous
c. Cancellous: Arranged in parallel lamellae
d. Compact
 Further Reading: Bone anatomy; Intramembranous ossification
 Bone Growth and Renewal:
o Cartilage structures act as “models” for future bones (early development)
i. Calcium salts deposit in matrix (Cartilage cells, osteoblasts)
ii. Endochondral ossification (creation of bone tissue)
o Osteoclasts: break down bone; remove worn cells; deposit calcium (blood); heal
broken bones (w/ osteoblasts)
o 3 Hormones:
1. Somatotropin (growth hormone)
2. Calcitonin (Reduces Ca2+ in the blood)
3. Parathyroid hormone (Increases Ca2+ content of the blood)
 Vertebral Skeletal System:
o Axial (Skull, Vertebral Column, Sternum, Ribs) and Appendicular (everything else)
 Human Skeletal System: (Bones store Ca2+ and PO33-; some bones produce RBCs)
o Skull
o Vertebral Column (Mnemonic: Come Try Learning about the Spinal Column)
 Cervical (Neck)
 Thoracic (Chest)
 Lumbar (Back)
 Sacral (Sacrum/Pelvis)
 Coccyx (Tailbone)
o Rib Cage
 True Ribs (7) (Connected to sternum)
 False Ribs (5) (no direct connection to sternum (3); include “floating” ribs (2))
o 3 Types of joints:
1. Fibrous (Synarthroses): immovable (cranium, tibio-fibula; radio-ulna)
2. Cartilaginous (Amphiarthroses): slightly movable (vertebrae)
3. Synovial (Diarthroses): freely movable; separate bones (cavity); e.g. ball-&socket, hinge, etc.
Review: Test Yourself
I. True or False: (Sir Solis type)
1. Lumbar vertebra come before thoracic vertebra.
2. The stratum lucidum comes after the stratum granulosum.
3. Bone cells have a calcium matrix secreted by osteocytes.
4. Rays have skeletons made predominantly of cartilage.
5. When digested by bacteria, sweat produced by eccrine sweat glands produce a foul odor.
II. Analogy:
1. ______________ : Mature :: Notochord : Embryo (BONUS: Exeption to this rule)
2. Granulosum : __ :: _____________ : 5
3. Immovable : ________________ :: Freely movable : Diarthroses
4. ___________ : CaCO3 :: ______________ : Protein molecules bind with cross-linkages
5. Sebaceous : ______ :: _____________ : Earwax
III. Identification:
1. Type of joint found in between vertebra:
2. Type of integument of molluscs:
3. Term for the last two ribs in the ribcage:
4. A special type of tissue kept at constant volume:
5. Term for fishes with cartilagenous skeletons (i.e. sharks, rays, skates):
6. Type of skeleton where pectoral girdle is found:
7. Increases Ca2+ content of the blood:
8. Specialized outer layer of protein in some protozoa:
9. Area of the nail where cell division takes place:
10. Special epidermal cells resistant to abrasions:
IV. Essay:
1. Explain why no blood vessels are needed in epidermal tissue.
2. Why do endoskeletal organisms generally grow bigger than exoskeletal organisms?
3. Give the reasoning behind the replacement of cartilage with bone upon maturity.
4. Enumerate the process of molting.