BIOL 2020
HUMAN
ANATOMY &
PHYSIOLOGY II
Dr. Tyler Evans
Email: tyler.evans@csueastbay.edu
Office: S Sci 350
Office Hours: Thu 8:30-11:30 or by appointment
Website: http://evanslabcsueb.weebly.com/
Phone: 510-885-3475
TODAY’S SCHEDULE
• Course Description
• Cells and Tissues
LEARNING OUTCOMES
(What I hope you will gain from this course)
• the primary goal of this
course is to give you an
understanding of anatomy
and physiology that will be
valuable to you, not only in
attaining your career
objectives but also in
understanding processes
that govern your daily life.
LECTURES
• lectures will be presented using Powerpoint.
• each lecture will be posted on Blackboard prior to class
(almost always the evening before).
• it is important to realize that my Powerpoint slides do not
represent all material required for the exams.
• Important information that will be covered in exams will
be added to each lecture.
• thus attending class and taking thorough notes is the key
to success.
LECTURES
TEXTBOOK AND READINGS
• the primary source of information for this course will be
the lectures
• the textbook will be used mainly to illustrate or clarify
materials presented during lectures
• however, specific reading assignments may be given
throughout the course.
• you will be notified of reading assignments and if that
reading assignment will be covered on the exam
TEXTBOOK
Human Anatomy and
Physiology
(9th edition)
by Elaine N Marieb
Katja Hoehn
LABS
• you will be performing laboratory exercises designed to help you
understand certain fundamental physiological principles.
• lab materials will be posted on Blackboard each week
• your attendance in lab each week is mandatory
• any unexcused absence from a lab will result in 0 credit for the
missed lab.
• you are required to stay for the entire lab session, or until excused
by the instructor.
• you will check out with your lab instructor, showing you have met
the lab learning objectives and your lab space has been returned
to its original condition.
GRADING
Your final grade will be determined by three exams and
the laboratory component:
• exams will
Midterm Exam #1………..25% (Aug 8)
focus on
Midterm Exam #2………..25% (Aug 22)
lecture
Final Exam…………………..25% (Sept 4)
materials
Lab Component…...…….25% (Weekly Jul 29-Aug 28)
You must pass (>50%) at least one exam to pass the course
COURSE POLICIES
(in accordance with CSUEB guidelines)
Academic Dishonesty
•
please review CSUEB’s policies and understand what is considered academic dishonesty:
http://www20.csueastbay.edu/academic/academic-policies/academic-dishonesty.html
Missed Exams
• make every effort to avoid missing scheduled exams. In case of an emergency or
legitimate conflict, you may be eligible to take a specially scheduled make-up exam.
However, you must provide verifiable, written documentation for your absence. Any
unexcused absence from an exam will result in a score of 0 for that exam.
Special Academic Accommodations:
• if you have a documented disability, accommodations can be arranged for exams and
other activities. For more information please visit:
http://www20.csueastbay.edu/af/departments/as/
Courtesy:
• Please turn off all audible sounds to any electronic devices (phones, PDAs, etc.)
while in lecture and refrain from using your laptops for activities not related to
lecture during class time
• Use of these items is strictly prohibited during all exams, unless special
accommodations have been arranged.
KEYS TO SUCCESS IN BIOL 2020
• this course occurs at twice the speed of a course taken during the
regular academic year
• for this reason, the time commitment required to receive a good
grade in this course is high
• DO NOT GET BEHIND: you need to be committed and diligent
about reviewing the material covered in lecture
• Attend all the lectures
• Prepare and take thorough
notes
• Study those notes
• Ask questions! And come
see me!
QUESTIONS?
CELLS: THE LIVING UNITS
CHAPTER 3
• cells are the structural units of all living things and the smallest living unit
• the importance of cells is described by four concepts collectively known as CELL
THEORY:
1. A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms. When
you define cell properties, you also define the properties of life
2. The activity of an organism depends on both the individual and the
collective activities of its cells
3. The biochemical activities of cells are determined by their form and relative
number of subcellular structures
4. Continuity on life from one generation to the next has a cellular basis
CELLS: THE LIVING UNITS
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
• the human body is composed of trillions of cells
that vary greatly in shape, size and function.
• flat tile-like epithelial cells line the inside of your
cheeks and fit tightly together to protect
underlying tissues from bacteria
• red blood cells are found in the blood and are
disc-shaped, allowing these cells to shrink are
expand without rupturing
• motile cells, such as sperm, have been modified
to allow for movement
Fig 3.1 pg 62
CELLS: THE LIVING UNITS
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
• regardless of cell type, most cells share the same basic structure
• a generalized or COMPOSITE CELL has three main parts:
1. PLASMA MEMBRANE: the outer
boundary of the cell
2. CYTOPLASM: the intracellular fluid
packed with ORGANELLES, small
structures that perform specific
functions
Fig 3.2 pg 63
3. NUCLEUS: an organelle that
coordinates cellular activities.
• the nucleus is typically near the
cells center
CELLS: THE LIVING UNITS
PLASMA MEMBRANE
1. PLASMA MEMBRANE: the outer boundary of the cell that separates the two
major fluid compartments: INTRACELLULAR (inside of cells) and EXTRACELLULAR
(outside of cells)
• the plasma membrane is not a passive envelope, instead its structure is
described by the FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
• the membrane is
composed of a double
layer of lipids (the LIPID
BILAYER), in which
proteins are inserted
• protein components are
constantly changing,
hence the term fluid
mosaic
Fig 3.3 pg 64
CELLS: THE LIVING UNITS
PLASMA MEMBRANE
• membrane proteins make up about 50% of the mass of the plasma membrane
and are responsible for most specialized membrane functions
• there are two distinct populations of membrane proteins
1. INTEGRAL PROTEINS: which are firmly inserted into
the lipid bilayer
• most are TRANSMEMBRANE proteins, meaning they
span the entire length of the membrane and
protrude on either side
• e.g. proteins involved in transport, like ion
channels
• fig 3.4a pg. 66
2. PERIPHERAL PROTEINS: are loosely attached and
easily removed without disrupting the membrane
• e.g. proteins involved in supporting the cell, such
as those of the cytoskeleton
• fig 3.4c pg. 66
CELLS: THE LIVING UNITS
PLASMA MEMBRANE
• membrane proteins play a key role in regulating membrane traffic
• our cells are bathed in EXTRACELLULAR FLUID that contains proteins, sugars, ions,
fats, etc., and there is constant exchange of these substances across the
membrane
• substances move through the plasma membrane in two ways:
1. PASSIVELY: does not require energy
2. ACTIVELY: does require energy
1. PASSIVE PROCESSES: molecules move from an area where they are in high
concentration to areas where they are in lower concentration, that is down or along
their concentration gradient
e.g. DIFFUSION
time
time
Fig 3.6 pg 68
CELLS: THE LIVING UNITS
PLASMA MEMBRANE
1. PASSIVE PROCESSES
• same principle applies to substances moving across cell membranes
• DIFFUSION across cell membranes can occur with or without the assistance of
membrane proteins
Fig 3.7 pg 69
CELLS: THE LIVING UNITS
PLASMA MEMBRANE
2. ACTIVE PROCESSES
• refers to the use of energy to move substances across membranes
• occurs when substance is not able to dissolve in the lipid bilayer, is too large to
pass through channels or must be transported against its concentration gradient
• active processes use ATP to change the shape of a transporter protein, such that
molecule bound to the transport protein is moved from one side of the
membrane to the other.
e.g. Sodium-Potassium ATPase (Na+, K+ ATPase)
• concentration of K+ is 10X higher in
cells than outside and reverse for
Na+,
• K+ and Na+ slowly leak out of cells by
diffusion, so cells actively transport
K+ into cells and Na+ out of cells to
maintain this gradient
CELLS: THE LIVING UNITS
PLASMA MEMBRANE
Why would cells invest energy (ATP) to make sure more K+
is inside cells than outside and more Na+ outside cells than
inside?
CELLS: THE LIVING UNITS
CELL JUNCTIONS
• though certain cell types occur independently (e.g. blood cells) many other group
together into tight communities
• three ways in which cells can adhere to one another:
1.
TIGHT JUNCTION: a series of integral proteins in the plasma membranes of
adjacent cells fuse together.
• e.g. tight junctions in the digestive track prevent digestive enzymes from
seeping into the blood stream
2.
DESMOSOME: mechanical couplings that adjoin parts of adjacent cell
membranes using proteins called CADHERINS
3.
GAP JUNCTION: a communicating junction between cells. Adjacent cells are
connected by hollow tubes CONNEXONS
CELLS: THE LIVING UNITS
CELL JUNCTIONS
TIGHT JUNCTION
DESMOSOME
GAP JUNCTION
Fig 3.5 pg 67
TISSUE: THE LIVING FABRIC
CHAPTER 4
• these cell junctions allows cells to work together to accomplish
specific tasks
• TISSUES: are groups of cells that are similar in structure and
perform a common or related function
• four primary tissue types are found throughout the body:
1.
2.
3.
4.
EPITHELIAL (think “covers”)
CONNECTIVE (think “supports”)
NERVOUS (think “controls”)
MUSCLE (think “moves”)
• tissues are organized into ORGANS and most organs contain all
four tissue types
pg 116
TISSUE: THE LIVING FABRIC
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
• EPITHELIAL TISSUE or an EPITHELIUM is a sheet of cells that covers a body
surface or lines a body cavity and forms boundaries between different
environments
• e.g. form the outer layer of the skin and line the digestive, urogenital and
respiratory systems
• epithelial tissues have five special characteristics:
1. POLARITY-epithelium have an APICAL SURFACE that is exposed to the external
environment or internal cavity and a BASAL SURFACE facing other cells
• because the structure and function of apical and basal surfaces differ, epithelium
are said to have APICAL-BASAL POLARITY
Fig 4.2 pg 119
TISSUE: THE LIVING FABRIC
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
• epithelial tissues have five special characteristics:
2. SPECILAZED CONTACTS: epithelial cells fit tightly together to form a continuous
sheet
WHAT STRUCTURES WOULD ALLOW CELLS TO
BECOME CONNECTED TO FORM TIGHT AND
CONTINUOUS SHEETS?
TISSUE: THE LIVING FABRIC
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
• epithelial tissues have five special characteristics:
3. SUPPORTED BY CONNECTIVE TISSUE: all epithelial sheets rest upon and are
supported by connective tissue
• a layer of connective tissue called the BASEMENT MEMBRANE forms along
the basal surface of the epithelium
• this tissue is rich in the protein COLLAGEN, which helps prevent the
epithelium from stretching and tearing
Basement
membrane
TISSUE: THE LIVING FABRIC
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
• epithelial tissues have five special characteristics:
4. AVASCULAR BUT INNERVATED: epithelium contains no blood vessels (i.e. is
avascular) but is supplied by nerve fibers (i.e. is innervated)
• receive nutrients via diffusion from vessels supplying the basement membrane
5. REGENERATION: epithelium have a high regenerative capacity and divide rapidly
e.g. skin cells are continually shed and replaced by new ones
TISSUE: THE LIVING FABRIC
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
• different types of epithelium are classified based on two criteria
1. the number of cells layers present
2. The shape of its cells
NUMBER OF CELL LAYERS
• SIMPLE EPITHELIA consist of a single cell layer and are typically found where
absorption, secretion and filtration occur
• STRATIFIED EPITHELIA are composed of two or more layers stacked on top of
each other and are common in high abrasion areas like the skin and mouth
Fig 4.2a pg 119
TISSUE: THE LIVING FABRIC
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
• different types of epithelium are classified based on two criteria
1. the number of cells layers present
2. the shape of its cells
SHAPE OF CELLS
• SQUAMOUS CELLS are
flattened and scale-like
• CUBOIDAL CELLS are
box-like
• COLUMNAR CELLS are
tall and narrow
Fig 4.2b pg 119
TISSUE: THE LIVING FABRIC
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
• different combinations of cell layers and cell shapes give epithelial tissues
different properties
Fig 4.3a pg 120
TISSUE: THE LIVING FABRIC
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
• different combinations of cell layers and shape give epithelial tissues different
properties
Fig 4.3b pg 121
TISSUE: THE LIVING FABRIC
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
• different combinations of cell layers and shape give epithelial tissues different
properties
Fig 4.3c pg 121
TISSUE: THE LIVING FABRIC
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
• different combinations of cell layers and shape give epithelial tissues different
properties
• nuclei occurring
at different
heights can give
the impression of
multiple layers,
but is only a
single layer (i.e.
pseudo-stratified)
Fig 4.3d pg 122
TISSUE: THE LIVING FABRIC
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
• different combinations of cell layers and shape give epithelial tissues different
properties
• multi-layered:
cells divide
from below and
are pushed to
the surface
• suitable for
protection or
areas subject to
wear and tear
Fig 4.3d pg 123
TISSUE: THE LIVING FABRIC
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• most abundant and widely distributed of the primary tissues, but it’s amount in
particular organs is variable (skin = high; brain = low)
• does more than just connect body parts, also supports (bone/cartilage), protects,
insulates, stores reserve energy (fat) and transports substances
• like epithelial tissue, connective tissue has distinguishing characteristics:
1. COMMON ORGIN: all arise from MESENCHYME during embryonic
development
2. DEGREES OF VASCULARITY: dense connective tissue is poorly
vascularized, but other types have a rich supply of blood vessels.
3. EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX: connective tissue is unique in that it is
composed largely of non-living tissue called extracellular matrix (ECM)
• the ECM gives connective tissue its strength to bear weight and
withstand force
TISSUE: THE LIVING FABRIC
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• different combinations of cells and fibers (comprised of the proteins COLLAGEN or
ELASTIN) give connective tissue different properties
AREOLAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE: most common with variety of functions
• loosely
packed
fibers
Fig 4.8a pg 131
TISSUE: THE LIVING FABRIC
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• different combinations of cells and fibers (comprised of the proteins COLLAGEN or
ELASTIN) give connective tissue different properties
ADIPOSE (FAT) TISSUE: similar to areolar, but high nutrient storage capacity with a
high quantity of ADIPOCYTES or fat cells, used as energy reserves
• also acts as shock absorber and helps the body to retain heat
Fig 4.8b pg 131
TISSUE: THE LIVING FABRIC
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• different combinations of cells and fibers (comprised of the proteins COLLAGEN or
ELASTIN) give connective tissue different properties
DENSE REGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE: fibers are densely packed and arranged in
parallel which gives this tissue great resistance to pulling forces (i.e. HIGH TENSILE
STRENGTH) in one direction
• forms
tendons
Fig 4.8d pg 133
TISSUE: THE LIVING FABRIC
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• different combinations of cells and fibers (comprised of the proteins COLLAGEN or
ELASTIN) give connective tissue different properties
ELASTIC CONNECTIVE TISSUE: found in a few ligaments that are very stretchy, such as
those connecting the vertebrae, and the walls of large arteries
• high
concentration
of elastin
provides
“stretchiness”
Fig 4.8f pg 134
TISSUE: THE LIVING FABRIC
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
CARTILAGE: is intermediate between the dense connective tissue we just described
and bone. Cartilage is tough, flexible, avascular and a high water content (reduces
compression)
• types of cartilage differ by the dominant fiber present:
HYALINE CARTILAGE: most abundant with mostly collagen fibers
• only a small
number of cells
called
CHONDROCYTES
Fig 4.8g pg 135
TISSUE: THE LIVING FABRIC
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
BONE (OSSEOUS): is very hard and has an exceptional ability to support the body
• similar to the make-up of cartilage, but with additional collagen fibers and
CALCIUM SALTS deposited between the fibers
• bone cells called OSTEOBLASTS and OSTEOCLASTS secrete these materials
Fig 4.8j pg 137
TISSUE: THE LIVING FABRIC
MUSCLE TISSUE
MUSCLE TISSUE: highly cellular, well vascularized tissue involved in movement
• muscle cells possess MYOFILAMENTS composed of the proteins ACTIN and
MYOSIN that function during muscle contraction
• there are three types of muscle tissue:
1.) SKELETAL: attached to the bones of the skeleton and used in movement
• possess a striated or “banded” appearance due to the very ordered structure of
actin and myosin in muscle cells
2.) SMOOTH: no striations and found in the walls of hollow organs (e.g. digestive
tract and blood vessels)
• squeezes substances through these organs by contracting and relaxing
3.) CARDIAC: found in the walls of the heart and its contraction helps to propel
blood through the body
• like skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle is striated
TISSUE: THE LIVING FABRIC
MUSCLE TISSUE
1.) SKELETAL: attached to the bones of the skeleton and used in movement
• possess a striated or “banded” appearance due to the very ordered structure of
actin and myosin in muscle cells
Fig 4.9a pg 138
TISSUE: THE LIVING FABRIC
NERVOUS TISSUE
NERVOUS TISSUE: main component of brain, spinal cord and nerves which regulate
and control body functions
Composed of two main
cells:
1. NEURONS: cells
specialized for
transmitting electrical
signals and therefore
possess long thin
extensions
2. SUPPORTING CELLS:
non-conductive and
perform a number of
tasks
Fig 4.10 pg 140
GLOSSARY OF TISSUE HISTOLOGY
• histology and tissue types covered in previous slides may be on lecture exams
• the lab component of this course covers many more tissue types than
presented in today’s lecture
• for this reason I have included extra slides with additional tissue histology
• you will not need to know these slides for lecture exams
TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM
Fig 4.3d pg 123
GLOSSARY OF TISSUE HISTOLOGY
RETICLUAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• fibers are softer and this type of connective tissue is more delicate
Fig 4.8c pg 132
GLOSSARY OF TISSUE HISTOLOGY
DENSE IRREGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSE
• collagen fibers are thicker and arranged in different directions, so can withstand
force from many different directions
Fig 4.8e pg 133
GLOSSARY OF TISSUE HISTOLOGY
CARTILAGE: is intermediate between the dense connective tissue we just described
and bone. Cartilage is tough, flexible, avascular and a high water content (reduces
compression)
• types of cartilage differ by the dominant fiber present:
ELASTIC CARTILAGE
more elastin
fibers so
much more
stretchable
Fig 4.8h pg 135
GLOSSARY OF TISSUE HISTOLOGY
CARTILAGE: is intermediate between the dense connective tissue we just described
and bone. Cartilage is tough, flexible, avascular and a high water content (reduces
compression)
• types of cartilage differ by the dominant fiber present:
FIBROCARTILAGE
contains repeating
rows of very thick
collagen fibers and is
found where very
strong support is
required
Fig 4.8i pg 136
FOR REVIEW TONIGHT
• understand the three main parts of a composite
(typical) cell and associated sub-structures
• understand the meaning of fluid mosaic model
• know the different types of passive transport
• understand the role of active transport in creating
electrochemical gradients
• know types of cell junctions
• familiarize yourself with the four types of primary
tissue, their subtypes, primary function and location
in the body
NEXT LECTURE
THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
CHAPTER 5