Biology SOL Review
A General Overview
Water: Polarity
• Caused by unequal sharing
of electrons
• H end is more positively
charged & O end is more
negatively charged
• Causes water to be a good
solvent (dissolver)
• Creates Hydrogen bonds
Water: Hydrogen Bonds
• Attraction between the
positive H of one water
molecules & the
negative O of another
water molecule
• Weak bond
• Breaks & reforms easily
Other Water Properties
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Cohesion – water bonds to water
Adhesion – water bonds to other
Neutral – pH of 7
Surface Tension – cohesion, adhesion &
H bonds resistance to breakage
• High Heat Capacity – absorbs a lot of
heat before getting hot & takes a long
time to lose heat
pH Scale
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Shows how Acidic or Basic (Alkaline) something is
Acids: pH 0 – 6.9
Bases: pH 7.1 – 14
Neutral: pH 7
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
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Builds carb molecules
Used by cells for energy
C-H-O in a 1:2:1 ratio
Ex: Glucose C6H12O6
Disaccharides
• 2 Monosaccharides
bonded together
• Ex:
Sucrose (table sugar)
(glucose + fructose)
Polysaccharides
• 3+ monosaccharides bonded together
• Used for long term storage of carbs
• Ex: Starch (plants) & Glycogen
(animals)
Lipids
• Fatty Acids are the
building blocks
• Used by the body
for:
• Examples:
Phospholipids, Cholesterol,
Fats, Waxes & Oils
Long Term Energy
Storage
Building Cell Membrane
Insulation
Lubrication
Proteins
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Made from 20 different Amino Acids
Functions:
Enzymes - speed up chemical reactions
Fight Disease (antibodies)
Build Structures (muscles, hemoglobin)
Polypeptides – many amino acids bonded
together = a Protein Molecule
Nucleic Acids
• Nucleotides are the
building blocks
• Examples include:
DNA & RNA
• Carry genetic code and
code for building
proteins
Cells & Processes
Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes
• Pro no!
(Prokaryotic Cells do NOT have a nucleus)
Smaller in size, more primitive,
EX: Bacteria
• Eu do!
(Eukaryotic Cells DO have a nucleus)
Generally larger in size, & contain
complex membrane bound organelles,
EX: Plant, Animal, Fungi & Protist Cells
Plant Cell vs. Animal Cell
Plant Cells
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Eukaryotic
Boxy Shape
Have a Cell Wall
Have Chloroplasts
Have Chlorophyll
1 Large Vacuole
NO Centrioles
Animal Cells
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Eukaryotic
Rounder Shape
NO Cell Wall
NO Chloroplasts
NO Chlorophyll
1 or more smaller Vacuoles
Have Centrioles
Cell Organelles
Cell Organelle
Function
Nucleus (like the Brain)
Controls Functions; DNA is
here
Cytoplasm (Jelly Like Fluid)
Organelles found floating
around in this; Chemical
Reactions happen here
Mitochondria (Powerhouse)
Creates ATP; Site of Cell
Respiration
Ribsomes (Little Dots)
Site of Protein Synthesis;
Made of rRNA
Chloroplast (Green)
Site of Photosynthesis
Cell Membrane
Regulates what enters &
leaves
Cell Wall
Rigid outer structure for
support & protection
Cell Membrane
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Semi-permeable
Phospholipid Bilayer
Protein Channels
Regulates the materials
that enter and exit the
cell
• Diffusion
and
Osmosis
occur thru
Diffusion
• Movement of substances (sugar, salt, ions,
oxygen, amino acids, wastes, etc) through the cell
membrane from higher to lower concentration
Osmosis
• The movement of water through a semi-permeable
membrane from higher water concentration to lower
water concentration.
Importance to Living Things:
• Carries nutrient rich liquid into cells
• Balances pressure & concentration
• Helps expel wastes
• Needed by plants to absorb water from soil
Photosynthesis
CO2 + H2O + Sunlight  C6H12O6 + O2
• Carried out by
plants, some
varieties of
protists and some
types of bacteria
• Occurs in the
chloroplasts
• Chlorophyll is
green pigment
that traps light
energy
Cellular Respiration
O2 + C6H12O6  H2O + CO2 + ATP (energy)
• Carried out by all
living things
• Occurs in the
Mitochondria
• ATP is created
which is the energy
molecule used by
cells to do work
DNA
DNA vs RNA
• Deoxyribose
sugar
• Thymine
• Double Strand
• Double Helix
• Contains code
for building
Proteins
• Found in the
nucleus
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Ribose sugar
Uracil
Single Strand
3 Types:
mRNA,
rRNA, tRNA
• Makes
copies of
proteins
DNA Technology
• Human Genome Project – mapping all human
genes on each of our 46 chromosomes
• Detection & prevention of genetic disorders &
diseases
• Advances in Genetic Engineering (insulin, disease
resistant fruits & vegetables, medicine)
• Eugenics – the practice of improving the genetics
of the human race
• Cloning – producing genetically identical
individuals
• Forensics – using DNA evidence for identification
purposes
Genetics
Genes: Dominant vs Recessive
Recessive Genes
• Will only produce the
Recessive Phenotype if both
alleles are Recessive.
Dominant Genes
• Produces the Dominant
Phenotype whether it’s
allele is identical or not.
Punnett Squares
Cross a Homozygous Recessive
Green Eyed Mother with a
Heterozygous Brown Eyed Father
Possibility for
Offspring:
Genotypes –
50% Bb 50% bb
Phenotypes –
50% Brown Eyed
50% Green Eyed
Protein Synthesis
Transcription
Inside the
Nucleus of
the cell
where
DNA is
located
• RNA Polymerase enzyme unzips DNA
• mRNA makes a copy of the DNA code for
building a protein
Translation
• mRNA takes the DNA’s protein code to the
Ribosome in the cytoplasm
• tRNA brings in the Amino Acids to build the
Protein
Start codons &
Stop codons
tell the RNA
where to begin
& end when
building a
Protein
Protein Structure & Function in the Body
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Involved in virtually all cell functions
Each protein has a specific role.
Constructed from 20 types of amino acids
Have a distinct 3-D shape (Lock & Key Model)
If shape is altered (Denatured), it won’t
function
Proteins build many structures
in our bodies…
Evolution
Darwin
• Developed the
Theory of Evolution
• Traveled to
Galapagos Islands
on HMS Beagle
• Wrote book: On the
Origin of the
Species
• Found evidence for
Evolution with
Finches/Beaks
Natural vs Artificial Selection
Natural Selection
• Gradual process where
traits become more or less
common in a population
based on their usefulness to
survival
• A basic mechanism of
evolution, along with
mutation, migration and
genetic drift
Artificial Selection
• Process where humans
purposely breed or
engineer certain traits into
populations
Common Ancestry
• Common
descent could
provide a logical
basis for
classification
• Common
ancestry
between
organisms of
different species
arises during
speciation
Evidence for Evolution
Taxonomy
Taxa
Taxonomy is the science of
defining groups of biological
organisms on the basis of shared
characteristics and giving names
to those groups.
There are 7 groups or
Taxa for classifying
organisms.
Binomial Nomenclature:
Writing a Scientific Name
Dichotomous Keys
System used to identify organisms by answering
questions to narrow down characteristics.
Diversity of Life
Viruses
• Nonliving particles
• Made of a protein coat that surrounds DNA or
RNA (nucleic acid)
• Can only reproduce within Host Cells
• Lytic Cycle- kills host cell
• Lysogenic Cycle – creates a Prophage by
putting viral DNA into the Host cell’s DNA;
Virus stays dormant for years eventually
causing disease later
Example of a Bacteriophage Virus attacking a Bacteria
Cell…
Bacteria
Eubacteria
Archaebacteria
• Cell wall with Peptidoglycan • Cell wall NO Peptidoglycan
• Found everywhere – very
• Live in extreme or harsh
common
environments (high
temperatures, sulfur,
• Examples: E.Coli,
volcanoes, no oxygen, salt)
Salmonella, Staphylococcus
aureus
• Examples: Methanogens,
Halophiles, Thermophiles
Both share common
shapes: Coccus, Bacillus,
Spirillus
Both share common arrangements: diplo, staphylo, strepto
Protists
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Plant-Like, Animal-Like & Fungus-Like
Move using pseudopods, flagella or cilia
Some don’t move at all
Some are autotrophs & other heterotrophs
Examples: Algae, Amoebas, Diatoms,
Dinoflagellates
• Can cause disease and red tides
Fungi
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Some unicellular = yeast = used in baking
Some multicellular = mushroom, mold
Decomposers
Can cause disease – athletes foot, jock itch,
ringworm
• Reproduce Asexually (budding & spores) or
Sexually (Gametangium)
• Mutualistic Symbiotic Relationship with plant
roots = Mycorrhiza Fungi
Animals
General Animal
Characteristics
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All Multicellular
All Heterotrophic
All are capable of movement at some point
Reproduce: Sperm + Egg = Zygote
Zygote grows into Blastula & Gastrula
Gastrula produces layers: Ectoderm,
Mesoderm & Endoderm
• Layers develop into organ systems
Invertebrates
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No backbone
Very Diverse Phyla:
Sponges
Cnidarians – Jellyfish & coral
Worms – flat, round & segmented
Mollusks – octopus, snails, clams
Arthropods – crabs, insects, spiders
Echinoderms – sand dollars, starfish
Vertebrates
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Backbone
Phylum: Chordata Subphylum: Vertebrata
Classes:
Jawless Fish, Bony Fish, Cartilaginous Fish
Amphibians
Reptiles
Birds (Aves)
Mammals
Adaptations
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Ectothermic – must get heat from environment
Endothermic – can produce their own body heat
Mammary Glands - milk for babies
Amniotic Egg – has a protective shell
Plants
General Plant Characteristics
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All Multicellular
Autotrophs (producers)
Have Roots, Stems & Leaves
Cell Walls made of Cellulose
Non-Vascular vs Vascular
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Non-Vascular
Vascular
No veins (Phloem & Zylem)
Low growing plants
Likes shady, moist areas
Ex: Mosses
• Have Veins (Phloem & Xylem)
• Includes Gymnosperms &
Angiosperms
• Ex: Trees, Grass
Gymnosperms vs Angiosperms
Gymnosperms
• Cone bearing plants
• Seeds produced in cones
• Ex: Pine Tree, Fir Tree
Angiosperms
• Flower producing plants
• Seeds produced in a fruit or
nut
• Can be Monocot or Dicot
• Ex: Squash, Grass, Peanuts
Processes of a Leaf
1. Photosynthesis
2. Transpiration: Loss of water through leaves
3. Gas Exchange: take in carbon dioxide and
release oxygen through the stomata
Chloroplasts & Photosynthesis
• Chloroplasts contain Chlorophyll, the green
pigment that traps light energy
Carbon dioxide + water → sugar + oxygen
light
CO2 + H2O → C6H12O6 + O2
light
Energy Flow
• Energy flows in one direction
• Energy on Earth comes from the sun
• Food Chains & Food Webs show how Energy
Flows in an Ecosystem
Food Chain Example:
Food Web: Arrows show the direction of energy flow.
Autotrophs
Herbivores
Carnivores
Top Carnivores
Symbiotic Relationships
Mutualism
Both organisms
benefit
Commensalism
Parasitism
1 organism benefits 1 organism benefits
but 1 organism is
but 1 organism is
neither harmed nor
harmed
benefits
Succession
Predictable changes to a community over time.
Primary Succession: Brand
new community forms – EX:
new land created from a lava
flow or earthquake
Secondary Succession:
Community starts over after a
natural disaster destroys an
existing community
Other Ecological Concepts
Niche
• The role an organism plays
in its community
• No two organisms can
occupy the same niche
• Examples:
- Oak tree provides habitat
- Honey Bees pollinate
flowers
- Worms provide food for
Robins
- Termite Queen lays eggs for
hive
Limiting Factors
• Controls the growth of
organisms
• Can be Biotic, such as:
Predation, Disease, Starvation,
Competition
• Can be Abiotic, such as:
• Habitat loss, Natural
Disasters, Temperature,
Drought
Populations
• Carrying Capacity (K) –
represents the
population number of
individuals the
environment can
support
• J-Curve & S-Curve
Graphs
• Initial Growth,
Exponential Growth,
Steady State, Decline,
Extinction or Absence
Determining Variables
Independent Variable –
The condition you have control
over changing – you decide the
conditions
In a data table, the Independent
Variable is usually the first column!
In a data table, the Dependent Variable
is usually the second column!
Dependent Variable –
The condition that changes as a
result of the Independent
variable
On a graph, the Dependent Variable
is on the Y-Axis!
On a graph, the Independent
Variable is on the X-Axis!