B0H4M
CHAPTER 14
14.1 Individual Needs and
Motivation
Types of content theories:
 Hierarchy of needs theory
 ERG theory
 Two-factor theory
 Acquired needs theory
 Motivation
and individual needs
◦ Motivation—the forces within the individual that account
for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended
at work.
 Needs
◦ Unfulfilled physiological and psychological desires of an
individual.
◦ Explain workplace behaviour and attitudes.
◦ Create tensions that influence attitudes and behaviour.
◦ Good managers and leaders facilitate employee need
satisfaction.
Hierarchy of needs theory
◦ Developed by Abraham Maslow.
◦ Lower-order and higher-order needs affect workplace
behavior and attitudes.
◦ Lower-order needs:
 Physiological, safety, and social needs.
 Desires for physical and social well being.
◦ Higher-order needs:
 Esteem and self-actualization needs.
 Desire for psychological growth and development.
ERG theory
◦ Developed by Clayton Alderfer.
◦ Three need levels:
 Existence needs — desires for physiological and
material well-being.
 Relatedness needs — desires for satisfying
interpersonal relationships.
 Growth needs — desires for continued
psychological growth and development.
Two-factor theory
◦ Developed by Frederick Herzberg.
◦ Hygiene factors:
 Elements of the job context.
 Sources of job dissatisfaction.
◦ Satisfier factors:
 Elements of the job content.
 Sources of job satisfaction and motivation.
Acquired needs theory
◦ Developed by David McClelland.
◦ People acquire needs through their life
experiences.
◦ Needs that are acquired:
 Need for Achievement (nAch)
 Need for Power (nPower)
 Need for Affiliation (nAff)
14.2 Process theories of motivation
◦ How people make choices to work hard or not.
◦ Choices are based on:
 Individual preferences.
 Available rewards.
 Possible work outcomes.
 Types of process theories:
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Equity theory.
Expectancy theory.
Goal-setting theory.
Self-efficacy theory.
Equity Theory
◦ Developed by J. Stacy Adams.
◦ When people believe that they have been
treated unfairly in comparison to others, they
try to eliminate the discomfort and restore a
perceived sense of equity to the situation.
 Perceived inequity.
 Perceived equity.
◦ People respond to perceived negative
inequity by changing: Work inputs, Rewards
received, Comparison points, Situation.
Expectancy Theory
◦ Developed by Victor Vroom.
◦ Key expectancy theory variables:
 Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in
desired level of performance.
 Instrumentality — belief that successful performance will
be followed by rewards.
◦ Valence — value a person assigns to rewards and
other work related outcomes.
◦ Motivation (M), expectancy (E), instrumentality
(I), and valence (V) are related to one another in
a multiplicative fashion:
M=ExIxV
◦ If either E, I, or V is low, motivation will be low.
Goal-setting theory
◦ Developed by Edwin Locke.
◦ Properly set and well-managed task goals can be highly
motivating.
◦ Motivational effects of task goals:
 Provide direction to people in their work.
 Clarify performance expectations.
 Establish a frame of reference for feedback.
 Provide a foundation for behavioural self-management.
Self-Efficacy Theory
◦ a person’s belief that he or she is capable of
performing a task
◦ Capability directly affects motivation
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higher self-efficacy will have higher expectancy.
self-efficacy is linked to performance goal setting.
◦ Enactive mastery – person gains confidence through positive
experience
◦ Vicarious modeling – learning by observing others
◦ Verbal persuasion – encouragement from others that one can
perform a task
◦ Emotional arousal – high stimulation or energy to perform
well in a situation
14.3 Reinforcement Theory pf
Motivation
◦ Law of effect — impact of type of consequence on future
behavior.
◦ Operant conditioning: Applies law of effect to
control behavior by manipulating its
consequences.
Operant conditioning strategies:
◦ Positive reinforcement
 Increases the frequency of a behaviour through the
contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence.
◦ Negative reinforcement
 Increases the frequency of a behaviour through the
contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence.
◦ Punishment
 Decreases the frequency of a behaviour through the
contingent presentation of an unpleasant consequence.
◦ Extinction
 Decreases the frequency of a behaviour through the
contingent removal of an pleasant consequence.
Successful implementation of positive
reinforcement is based on
◦ Law of contingent reinforcement —
 Reward delivered only if desired behaviour is
exhibited.
◦ Law of immediate reinforcement —
 More immediate the delivery of a reward, the
more reinforcement value it has.
14.4 Motivation and Job design
Job
◦ A collection of tasks performed in support of
organizational objectives.
Job design
◦ The process of creating or defining jobs by assigning
specific work tasks to individuals and groups.
◦ Jobs should be designed so that both performance and
satisfaction result.
Job simplification.
◦ Standardizing work procedures and
employing people in well-defined and
highly specialized tasks.
◦ Simplified jobs are narrow in job scope
and low in job depth.
◦ Automation.
 Total mechanization of a job.
 Most extreme form of job simplification.
Job rotation and job enlargement:
◦ Expands job scope.
◦ Job rotation.
 Increases task variety by periodically shifting workers
among jobs involving different task assignments.
◦ Job enlargement.
 Increases task variety by combining two or more tasks
previously assigned to separate workers.
 Horizontal loading.
Job enrichment.
◦ Building more opportunities for
satisfaction into a job by expanding its
content.
◦ Expands both job scope and job depth.
◦ Frequently accomplished through vertical
loading.
Core job characteristics:
◦ Skill variety.
◦ Task identity.
◦ Task significance.
◦ Autonomy.
◦ Feedback.
Improving core job characteristics:
◦ Form natural units of work.
◦ Combine tasks.
◦ Establish client relationships.
◦ Open feedback channels.
◦ Practice vertical loading.
Flexible working hours.
◦ Any work schedule that gives employees
some choice in the pattern of their daily
work hours.
 Core time — all employees must be at work.
 Flextime — allows employees to schedule
around personal and family responsibilities.

Compressed workweek
Job sharing.
◦ One full-time job is split between two or
more persons.
Telecommuting.
◦ A work arrangement that allows a portion of
scheduled work hours to be completed
outside of the office.
◦ Hoteling.
◦ Virtual offices.
Potential advantages of telecommuting
◦ Freedom from
 Constraints of commuting.
 Fixed hours.
 Special work attire.
 Direct contact with supervisors.
◦ Increased productivity.
◦ Fewer distractions.
◦ Being one’s own boss.
◦ Having more personal time.
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Potential disadvantages of telecommuting
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Working too much.
Having less personal time.
Difficulty in separating work and personal life.
Less time for family.
Feelings of isolation.
Loss of visibility for promotion.
Difficulties supervising work-at-home employees from a
distance.
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Part-time work.
◦ Work done on any schedule less than the
standard 40-hour workweek and does
not qualify person as a full-time
employee.
◦ Contingency workers
 Part-time workers who supplement the fulltime workforce, often on a long-term basis.
 Now constitute 30 percent of the American
workforce.
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Implications of part-time work:
◦ Provides employers with flexibility in
controlling labour costs and dealing with
cyclical labour demands.
◦ Temporary workers may lack
commitment and be less productive.
◦ Contingency workers are often paid less
and don’t receive important fringe
benefits.
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