Motivation
2 Levels of Outcomes
Organizational Factors
 Role ambiguity
 Role conflict
 PER system
 Reward system
 Job design system
Individual Factors
 Self-efficacy
 Need for achievement
 Locus of control
 Self esteem
2nd level outcomes
Basically result of attitudes.
Think of Behaviours
Ex: performance; being tardy; working at home etc.
Basically result of 1st level outcomes
Result of behaviours
Ex: promotion, rewards
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
Behaviour purposeful & goal centered
Goals are valued on a personal level (WIIFM)
First Level Outcome
Second Level Outcome
High performance
Promotion
Raise
Status
etc
Instrumentality
Expectancy
Expectancy Theory
1st level outcomes
Work environment
EFFORT
7
Ability
The belief that a given level of effort will result in a 1 st level outcome. Ex a person
may expend effort in the belief that it will result in high performance (a 1 st level
outcome).
2 reasons for this:
First: high performance may have positive valence in its own right (intrinsic reward)
Second: may believe that success at first level (performance) will result in valued
second level outcome (instrumentality is strongly positive)
Valence
Belief that 1st level outcomes
lead to 2nd level outcomes
Valence is personal attractiveness of
outcomes. Can be thought of as impact
(neg or pos)
Positive Instrumentality
Negative Instrumentality
2nd level outcome will result given some
level of performance (1st level outcome)
2nd level outcome will not result from
some given level of performance (1st
level outcome)
Process Theories of Motivation
How is behaviour stimulated?
Ability
Equity Theory
My rewards
My effort
compared to
P = ability X motivation
Work Attitudes
His rewards
His effort
Benevolent – comfortable with negative inequity
Equity sensitives – prefer equity
Entitled – comfortable with positive inequity
5
Personality
Performance
Task Difficulty
Always involves evaluation
Job Resources
6
Motivation
Content Theories of Motivation
2
What specific needs cause motivation?
Based on concepts of needs and motives.
Only one component of performance.
Maslow’s Hierarchy
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

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
Self Actualization
Esteem***
Belongingness**
Safety
Physiological
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
4
3
** Marks the beginning of higher
level needs that are infinite.
They can never be fully satisfied.
***Self-efficacy, the ‘can do’
attitude, confidence to achieve
high level of performance.

Hygienes –maintenance factors

Motivators – intrinsic factors
Unmet needs are more motivating than needs
that are satisfied, since motivation and needs
satisfaction are anticipatory in nature.
1 3 Elements
Direction – behaviours adopted to do task
Both must be present in order to have
high job satisfaction. Hygienes
necessary as a minimum
Level of effort – effort employees do behaviour
Extent of persistance – in face of adversity
*Low motivation does not always translate into
low performance
8
Behaviour Modification
11
Schedules of Reinforcement
Based on work of Skinner
Belief that behavior is a function of consequences
Partial
Operant conditioning - reinforcement which modifies
behaviour through its consequences
Positive reinforcement
(Pleasant consequence)
Interval Schedule
Strengthens behaviour
10
Continuous
Negative reinforcement
(removing negative consequence)
Avoidance learning
Ratio Schedule
Behavioural Shaping - Closer & closer
approximations to desired behaviour
Contingencies of
Reinforcement
Goal
Extinction
(Pleasant consequence removed)
Behaviour is not fed
Weakens behaviour
Punishment
(Unpleasant consequence applied)
Fixed
Variable
Linked to a given number of
behaviours (piece rate)
Linked to an average number
of behaviours
Fixed
Variable
Linked to a set amount of time
Linked to an average amount
of time
9 Cultural Differences (Motivation)
12 Stretching the ratio/interval
Maslow
Herzberg
Expectancy
Cultural Implications of BM
Different Cultures
=
Different Outcomes
Why? North Americans rate self actualization as high, the Japanese and
Greeks rate security as high (Maslow). New Zealand perceives supervision
and peer relations as motivators, whereas we consider them to be hygienes
(Herzberg). Expectancy theory is based on individual not collective efforts
and perceptions, we see individual effort resulting in performance and
reward, Muslims believe performance and results are determined by God
BM is an environmental theory of
motivation. It de-emphasizes the role of the
individual and increases the role of the
environment. Rather than having within us
what motivates us, we look to the
environment - we learn from our experiences
in our environment what to do to attain
rewards. Therefore BM believes that ego
needs for example, have little to do with
motivation.
Ex: Fixed interval then once goal is
achieved, shift to a three day average
using a variable interval schedule. After
several months average was increased to
five days. The purpose is to keep
employees from taking rewards for
granted.
Not good for financial rewards since
increases distrust of management.
13 Setting up a BM Program
14 Use of Punishment
Define the job
Job analysis to ensure understanding of responsibilities - job descriptions
Pros
Set Standards
Complete a Gap analysis
Determine the Intervention
Define performance behaviours and set performance goals
Conduct a baseline audit of present performance and plan where performance should be
It is natural (Mother nature does it all the time)
Applies positive stress, (deadlines etc)
No logical alternative (criminal activity)
It can be very effective
Select powerful and abundant re-inforcers to reward excellent performance (punishment also considered)
Use continual reinforcement to encourage new behaviours (praise and recognition)
Cons
Practice behavioural shaping manage the program and use coaching and teamwork
Modify/reinforce
Evaluate
Add new positive re-inforcers which employees value to establish desired behaviour
Suppresses does not eliminate (behaviour will return
if punisher is removed)
Stretch the ratio/interval to move employees to a sustained level of performance
Employees become anxious
Evaluate the program, id and measure target goals (reduced cost, increased productivity, attendance etc)
Hard to determine if punishment has actually taken
place (may be relative to persons point of view)
Employers must closely monitor employee
performance
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Elements of employee motivation
Distinguish motivation from performance
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Difference between hygienes and motivators
Difference between content and process theories of motivation
Connection between personality and and employees patterns of social comparisons of work outcomes
Major components of expectancy theory and how they relate to organizational processes
Develop organizational examples of how behaviour modification works
Differences in motivational patterns across cultures
Contingency of reinforcement and how to apply the concept
Differences between various schedules of reinforcement
Why managers should stretch the ratio/interval
Steps in setting up a behaviour modification program
Identify the pros and cons of using punishment in the workplace
Application
Rapid
Intense
Equitable
Focused
Private
Informative
Not followed by rewards