1.2 Ultrastructure of cells
Essential idea: Eukaryotes have a much more
complex cell structure than prokaryotes.
The background image above is an electron micrograph of pancreatic exocrine cells. It
clearly shows the complex structures present in eukaryote cells.
By Chris Paine
http://medcell.med.yale.edu/systems_cell_biology_old/liver_and_pancreas/images/exocrin
e_pancreas_em.jpg
https://bioknowledgy.weebly.com/
Understandings, Applications and Skills
1.2.U1
1.2.U2
1.2.U3
1.2.A1
1.2.A2
1.2.S1
Statement
Guidance
Prokaryotes have a simple cell structure without
compartmentalization.
Eukaryotes have a compartmentalized cell
structure.
Electron microscopes have a much higher
resolution than light microscopes.
Structure and function of organelles within exocrine
gland cells of the pancreas and within palisade
mesophyll cells of the leaf.
Prokaryotes divide by binary fission.
Drawing of the ultrastructure of prokaryotic cells
Drawings of prokaryotic cells should show the
based on electron micrographs.
cell wall, pili and flagella, and plasma
membrane enclosing cytoplasm that contains
70S ribosomes and a nucleoid with naked
DNA.
1.2.S2 Drawing of the ultrastructure of eukaryotic cells
based on electron micrographs.
1.2.S3 Interpretation of electron micrographs to identify
organelles and deduce the function of specialized
cells.
Drawings of eukaryotic cells should show a
plasma membrane enclosing cytoplasm that
contains 80S ribosomes and a nucleus,
mitochondria and other membrane-bound
organelles are present in the cytoplasm. Some
eukaryotic cells have a cell wall.
1.2.U3 Electron microscopes have a much higher resolution than light microscopes.
Resolution is defined as the shortest distance between two points that can be distinguished
•
•
•
Light microscopes are limited in resolution by the
wavelengths of visible light (400–700 nm).
Electrons have a much shorter wavelength (2 – 12 pm)
therefore electron microscopes have a much higher
resolution
Light microscopes are usually limited to 1000x because,
due to the resolution, nothing is gained by increasing
the magnification – try zooming in on an image on your
laptop or phone after a certain point there is no benefit
to zooming in as the image becomes pixelated
resolution
Millimetres
(mm)
Micrometres
(μm)
Nanometres
(nm)
Human eye
0.1
100
100,000
Light
microscopes
0.0002
0.2
200
Electron
microscopes
0.000001
0.001
1
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Electron_Microscope.jpg
Resolution
Magnification
Clarity
Measurement of how well the smallest details
of an image can be discerned
The number of times the image is enlarged
1.2.U3 Electron microscopes have a much higher resolution than light microscopes.
Ultrastructure is all the structures of a
biological specimen that are at least 0.1nm in
their smallest dimension
•
•
•
Light microscopes allow us to see the structure of cells
Electron microscopes allow us to see the ultrastructure of
cells, such as these pancreatic exocrine cells
Electron microscopes can see viruses (0.1μm diameter) , but
light microscopes cannot
http://medcell.med.yale.edu/systems_cell_biology_old/liver_and_pancreas/images/exocrine_pancreas_em.jpg
1.2.U1 Prokaryotes have a simple cell structure without compartmentalization.
1.2.U1 Prokaryotes have a simple cell structure without compartmentalization.
Good web-links for learning about prokaryote ultrastructure:
http://www.sheppardsoftware.com/health/anatomy/cell/bacteria_cell_tutorial.htm
http://www.wiley.com/college/boyer/0470003790/animations/cell_structure/cell_structure.htm
1.2.U1 Prokaryotes have a simple cell structure without compartmentalization.
Ultrastructure of E. coli as an example
of a prokaryote
http://www.tokresource.org/tok_classes/biobiobio/biomenu/metathink/required_drawings/index.htm
•
E. Coli is a model organism
used in research and
teaching. Some strains are
toxic to humans and can
cause food poisoning.
•
We refer to the cell
parts/ultrastructure of
prokaryotes rather than use
the term organelle as very
few structures in
prokaryotes are regarded as
organelles.
1.2.A2 Prokaryotes divide by binary fission.
Prokaryotes reproduce asexually using the process of
binary fission
• The DNA is replicated semi conservatively [2.7.U1]
• The two DNA loops attach to the membrane
• The membrane elongates and pinches off
(cytokinesis) forming two separate cells
• The two daughter cells are genetically identically
(clones)
• Binary fission is also used by some organelles in
eukaryotes [links to 1.5.U3]
http://youtu.be/vTzH1P3aQjg
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Binary_Fission.png
http://cronodon.com/images/Bacteria_dividing_3b.jpg
1.2.S1 Drawing of the ultrastructure of prokaryotic cells based on electron micrographs.
1.2.S1 Drawing of the ultrastructure of prokaryotic cells based on electron micrographs.
1.2.S1 Drawing of the ultrastructure of prokaryotic cells based on electron micrographs.
Past-paper question: E. coli TEM image
Identify these structures:
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Calculate the magnification of the image.
Image from IB Biology QuestionBank CDRom – get a copy here: https://store.ibo.org/biology
Past-paper question: E. coli TEM image
Identify these structures:
I. Plasma membrane
II. Cell wall / pili
III. Nucleoid
IV. Cytoplasm / ribosomes
Calculate the magnification of the image.
1. Measure the scale bar in mm.
2. Multiply x 1000 to convert to μm.
That is the magnification.
How long is the bacterium?
Image from IB Biology QuestionBank CDRom – get a copy here: https://store.ibo.org/biology
PROKARYOTES
E
P
R
O
D
U
C
E
through
binary fission
two-parts splitting
PROKARYOTES
binary fission
E through
P
R
The closed-loop DNA of the
O
bacterium makes copies through
semi-conservative DNA replication.
D
are pulled to opposing
U New plasmids
poles by the spindle fibres.
C
The bacterium divides in two.
E
Good Binary Fission Video
• Here is a
good
video
(with no
sound) that
describes
binary
fission
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gEwzDydciWc
How dirty is your phone? http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4lmwbBzClAc
Prokaryotes divide by binary fission.
Life cycle of E. coli from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escherichia_coli
A man got sick from E. coli after eating old sausages.
He’d contracted a porkaryote.
Photo: Sausages by Paul Hickman on Flickr (CC) http://flic.kr/p/bzcFSn
1.2.U2 Eukaryotes have a compartmentalized cell structure.
There are several advantages in being
compartmentalized:
• Effeciency of metabolism - enzymes and
substrates can localized and much more
concentrated
• Localised conditions - pH and other such factors
can be kept at optimal levels. The optimal pH level
for one process in one part of the cell
• Toxic / damaging substances can be isolated, e.g.
digestive enzymes (that could digest the cell itself)
are stored in lysosomes
• Numbers and locations of organelles can be
changed dependent on the cell’s requirements.
http://medcell.med.yale.edu/systems_cell_biology_old/liver_and_pancreas/images/exocrine_pancreas_em.jpg
1.2.U2 Eukaryotes have a compartmentalized cell structure.
1.2.U2 Eukaryotes have a compartmentalized cell structure.
Vesicle
membrane
sac
containing
proteins
ready for
secretion
http://www.tokresource.org/tok_classes/biobiobio/biomenu/eukaryotic_cells/liver_cell_500.jpg
EUKARYOTE CELL ULTRASTRUCTURE
Practice: What are
the respective
magnifications of the
cell as a whole and of
each of its organelles
in the following cell
picture?
Summary of the major cell organelles:
ORGANELLE
MAIN
FUNCTIONS
DIMENSIONS
Nucleus
Cell division,
protein
synthesis
10 µm diameter
Mitochondrion
Respiration
pathways
Chloroplast
Photosynthetic
pathways
Lysosome
Digestion,
recycling &
isolation
Golgi apparatus
Secretion,
reprocessing,
lysosome
synthesis
Cisternae:
0.5µm thick, l3µm diameter
Endoplasmic
Reticulum (ER)
Support, Golgi
apparatus
synthesis.
26 to 56 nm
thick
Ribosome
Protein
synthesis
1.0 to 12.5 µm
5 to 10 µm
diameter
0.5 to 3.0 µm
diameter
20 nm diameter
1.2.A1 Structure and function of organelles within exocrine gland cells of the pancreas
and within palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf.
Nucleus
• Generally spherical with a double membrane
• Pores (holes) are present in the membrane
• Allow mRNA to exit
• Contains genetic information in the form of
chromosomes (DNA and associated histone
proteins)
• Nucleosome
• Uncoiled chromosomes are referred to as
chromatin – they stain a dark colour and are
concentrated at the edges of the nucleus
• mRNA is transcribed in the nucleus (prior to
http://courses.lumenlearning.net/biology/wp-content/uploads/sites/5/2014/02/Figure_03_03_05.jpg
use in protein synthesis in the cytoplasm)
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Micrograph_of_a_cell_nucleus.png
1.2.A1 Structure and function of organelles within exocrine gland cells of the pancreas
and within palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf.
The Mitochondrion (pl. Mitochondria)
• Has a double membrane
• Has own DNA
• Has it’s own ribosomes
• A smooth outer membrane and a folded
inner membrane
• The folds are referred to as cristae
• Variable in shape
• Site of ATP production by aerobic respiration
(if fat is used as a source of energy it is
digested here)
Mitochondria in mammalian lung cells
http://ibguides.com/images/biology_figure_8.1.2_mitochondrion.png
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mitochondria,_mammalian_lung_-_TEM.jpg
1.2.A1 Structure and function of organelles within exocrine gland cells of the pancreas
and within palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf.
Free ribosomes
• 80S Ribosomes
(approx. 20nm
diameter) - larger
than the ribosomes
found in prokaryotes
• No membrane
• These appear as dark
granules in the
cytoplasm
• Synthesizes proteins
to function in the
cytoplasm, for use
within the cell, e.g.
enzymes
http://www.cc.kochi-u.ac.jp/~tatataa/genetics/Q2013/ribosome2.jpg
1.2.A1 Structure and function of organelles within exocrine gland cells of the pancreas
and within palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf.
The Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (rER)
• The consists of flattened membrane sacs, called
cisternae
• Often located near to the nucleus
• 80S Ribosomes are attached to the outside of
the cisternae are ribosomes
• rER synthesizes proteins which are transported,
by vesicles, to the golgi apparatus for
modification before secretion outside the cell
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
• no ribosomes present
1.2.A1 Structure and function of organelles within exocrine gland cells of the pancreas
and within palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf.
smooth ER (think of a body builder)
• does not have ribosomes on its surface
• function in making lipids (phospholipids
and steroids)
• metabolism (anabolic—put together) of
carbohydrates
• detoxification of drugs and poisons, and
storage of calcium ions
• If an autopsy indicates lots of smooth ER—
person probably on drugs or an alcoholic
1.2.A1 Structure and function of organelles within exocrine gland cells of the pancreas
and within palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf.
The Golgi apparatus
• This organelle also consists of flattened
membrane sacs called cisternae, like rER.
• Different to rER:
o No attached ribosomes
o Often sited close to the plasma membrane
o The cisternae are shorter and more curved
that those of the rER
• The Golgi apparatus processes (modifies)
proteins from from the rER. The proteins are
then repackaged in vesicles for secretion
outside the cell.
Need a simple diagram
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:C_Golgi.jpg
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Golgi_in_the_cytoplasm_of_a_macrophage_in_the_alveolus_(lung)_-_TEM.jpg
1.2.A1 Structure and function of organelles within exocrine gland cells of the pancreas
and within palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf.
Vesicles
• A single membrane with fluid inside
• Very small in size
• Used to transport materials inside of a cell
Need a simple diagram
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:C_Golgi.jpg
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Golgi_in_the_cytoplasm_of_a_macrophage_in_the_alveolus_(lung)_-_TEM.jpg
1.2.A1 Structure and function of organelles within exocrine gland cells of the pancreas
and within palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf.
Lysosomes
• Generally spherical with a single
membrane
• Formed from Golgi vesicles.
• They contain digestive enzymes for
breakdown of:
o ingested food in vesicles
o unwanted/damaged organelles
o The cell itself
• High concentration of enzymes (a type
of protein) cause this organelle to
stain heavily and hence appear dark
on micrographs
http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-WGspbEtlkls/TgCUbtp7_-I/AAAAAAAAAJw/SoIp2vXzH4E/s320/Figure+2-26.bmp
1.2.A1 Structure and function of organelles within exocrine gland cells of the pancreas
and within palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf.
Vacuoles
• Single membrane with fluid inside
• In Plant cells vacuoles are large
and permanent, often occupying
the majority of the cell volume
• In animals vacuoles are smaller
and temporary and used for
various reasons, e.g. to absorb
food and digest it
http://middletownhighschool.wikispaces.com/file/view/ch13f20.jpg/173915407/ch13f20.jpg
1.2.A1 Structure and function of organelles within exocrine gland cells of the pancreas
and within palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf.
Flagellum (Flagella pl.)
• Thin projection (usually singular) from the
cell surface.
• Contain microtubules
• Used to move the cell
*Mature plant cells do not possess possess cilia and flagella, but some
plant gametes are motile and do have them. This is not a common
occurrence and you would not be expected to know about this.
http://medicine.utah.edu/surgery/andrology/images/P29SERIES2-4.JPG
1.2.A1 Structure and function of organelles within exocrine gland cells of the pancreas
and within palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf.
Cilia
• Thin projections from the cell surface.
• Contain microtubules
• Used to either move the cell or to move the
fluids next to the cell
*Mature plant cells do not possess possess cilia and flagella, but some
plant gametes are motile and do have them. This is not a common
occurrence and you would not be expected to know about this.
http://cache1.asset-cache.net/gc/139809475-shows-cilia-pseudostratifed-structure-gobletgettyimages.jpg?v=1&c=IWSAsset&k=2&d=ut2a821i%2BSbReC5nXMMSneS7x9HksglF3dCo8uKSNT1EglzTjjv58OvCiQSlcyy0
1.2.A1 Structure and function of organelles within exocrine gland cells of the pancreas
and within palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf.
Microtubules
• Small cylindrical fibres called microtubules
• Have a variety of functions, e.g. part of the
structure of flagella and they play a role in cell
division
Centrioles
• Consist of two groups of nine triple
microtubules
• Are mainly found in animal cells, not present in
vascular plants or fungi.
https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSrrSOHTtgbp2fiBrTjBtL1sBOhi0i5z0pf4oWpQ9EdTqr_-IN9OQ
1.2.A1 Structure and function of organelles within exocrine gland cells of the pancreas
and within palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf.
Chloroplast
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Many, but not all, plant cells contain chloroplasts
A double membrane surrounds the chloroplast
Has it’s own DNA
Has it’s own Ribosomes
Inside are stacks of thylakoid disks
Each thylakoid is a disc composed of a flattened
membrane
The shape of chloroplasts is variable but is usually
ovoid
The site of photosynthesis and hence where glucose
is produced.
Starch grains maybe present if photosynthesis is
happening quickly
Can make ATP used for the light Independent
reaction (Calvin cycle)
https://benchprep.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/chloroplast2.jpg
http://www.biology.arizona.edu/biochemistry/problem_sets/photosynthesis_1/graphics/chloroplast.GIF
1.2.A1 Structure and function of organelles within exocrine gland cells of the pancreas
and within palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf.
Cell wall
• an extracellular component not an organelle.
• secreted by all plant cells (fungi and some
protists also secrete cell walls).
• Plant cell walls consist mainly of cellulose which
is:
o Permeable - does not affect transport in
and out of the cell
o Strong – gives support to the cell and
prevent the plasma membrane bursting
when under pressure
o Hard to digest –resistant to being broken
down, therefore lasts along time without
the need for replacement/maintenance
http://www.oncoursesystems.com/images/user/9341/10845583/01-03_PlantCell(L-Large).jpg
1.2.S2 Drawing of the ultrastructure of eukaryotic cells based on electron micrographs.
Draw a pancreas exocrine
cell from the image below.
You should be able to
label the following
structures:
• plasma membrane
• mitochondria
• rER
• Nucleus
• Secretory granules
(dark spheres)
http://medcell.med.yale.edu/systems_cell_biology_old/liver_and_pancreas/images/exocrine_pancreas_em.jpg
1.2.S2 Drawing of the ultrastructure of eukaryotic cells based on electron micrographs.
Draw a single
palisade
mesophyll cell
from the image
below. You should
be able to label
the following
structures:
• cell wall
• plasma
membrane
• chloroplasts
• vacuole
• nucleus
• cytoplasm
• mitochondria
http://www.lifesci.sussex.ac.uk/home/Julian_Thorpe/TEM19.htm
1.2.S3 Interpretation of electron micrographs to identify organelles and deduce the
function of specialized cells.
1.2.S3 Interpretation of electron micrographs to identify organelles and deduce the
function of specialized cells.
1.2.S3 Interpretation of electron micrographs to identify organelles and deduce the
function of specialized cells.
What organelles can you identify? Think about the role of the
organelles that occur most common and deduce the function of
the cell.
1.2.S3 Interpretation of electron micrographs to identify organelles and deduce the
function of specialized cells.
What organelles can you identify? Think about the role of the
organelles that occur most common and deduce the function of
the cell.
Evidence & conclusions:
• Nucleus present
• No cell wall – this is an animal cell
• rER is present and dominates the cell – lots of protein product
is made for secretion
• Lots of mitochondria – the synthesis of protein requires enegy
– this a metabolically active cell
• Lots of secretory granules/vesicles near the inside border
• Likely to be a cell that specializes in secreting a protein product,
possibly a hormone or enzyme
•
Is in fact: a mammalian exocrine secretory cell from the
pancreas
1.2.S3 Interpretation of electron micrographs to identify organelles and deduce the
function of specialized cells.
What organelles can you identify in the top most layer of cells?
Think about the role of the organelles that occur most common
and deduce the function of the cell.
http://bcrc.bio.umass.edu/histology/files/images/Pseudostratified%20Columnar%20Ciliated%20Epithelium1.jpg
1.2.S3 Interpretation of electron micrographs to identify organelles and deduce the
function of specialized cells.
What organelles can you identify in the top most layer of cells?
Think about the role of the organelles that occur most common
and deduce the function of the cell.
Evidence & conclusions:
• Nucleus present
• No cell wall – this is an animal cell
• Cells closely packed – does not allow infiltration of substances
from the lumen
• Has a cilia dominated ‘brush border’ adjacent to a lumen – cilia
are moving fluids in the lumen
• Likely to be a protective layer of cells that actively sweep fluids
away from the surface
•
Is in fact: ciliated epithelial cell from a mammalian lung
http://bcrc.bio.umass.edu/histology/files/images/Pseudostratified%20Columnar%20Ciliated%20Epithelium1.jpg
1.2.S3 Interpretation of electron micrographs to identify organelles and deduce the
function of specialized cells.
What organelles can you identify? Think about the role of the
organelles that occur most common and deduce the function of
the cell.
http://www.vcbio.science.ru.nl/images/tem-plant-cell.jpg
1.2.S3 Interpretation of electron micrographs to identify organelles and deduce the
function of specialized cells.
What organelles can you identify? Think about the role of the
organelles that occur most common and deduce the function of
the cell.
Evidence & conclusions:
• Cell wall present – must be a plant cell
• No chloroplasts – must be found inside the stem or in the roots
• Vacuoles relatively small – the cell does not have a storage,
transport or support function
• Nucleus relatively large / cell size small – likely to be a new cell
recently undergone mitosis
• Possibly recently divided cell tissue from a plant root
Is in fact: a plant cell found at the root-tip
http://www.vcbio.science.ru.nl/images/tem-plant-cell.jpg
Identify structures from in electron micrographs
of liver cells
•
1. Nucleus
2. Mitochondria
3. Cell border
4. Nucleoli
5. Red blood cell
Another example
Prokaryote
Eukaryote
Contain naked DNA
DNA associated with proteins (histones)
DNA in cytoplasm (nucleoid region)
DNA enclosed in the nucleus
No membrane-enclosed organelles
membrane-enclosed organelles (e.g.,
mitochondria, chloroplasts)
70S ribosomes
80S ribosomes
No mitochondria
Mitochondria
Circular DNA
Linear DNA
Flagella lack internal microtubules
Flagella have microtubules.
No mitosis/Meiosis (Reproduce via Binary fission
Mitosis/Meiosis
1.2.9 State three differences between plant and animal
cells.
•
•
•
•
•
Only plant cells have:
Cell walls
Chloroplasts
Large central vacuoles and tonoplast
Plasmodesmata (microscopic channels which traverse
the cell walls of plan cells and some algal cells,
enabling transport and communication between them
Starch granules for storage of carbohydrates
Only animal cells have:
Centrioles
Flagella
Glycogen for storage of carbohydrate
Lysosomes—careful, I have read where some plants have
lysosomes.
Also: Plant cells usually have much less cholesterol in their
plasma membranes.
Remember--Cholesterol is required to build and maintain
Said a little differently
• Animal cells only have a plasma membrane and no cell wall. Whereas plant cells
have a plasma membrane and a cell wall. Animal cells do not have chloroplasts
whereas plant cells do for the process of photosynthesis.
• Animal cells store glycogen as their carbohydrate resource whereas plants store
starch.
• Animal cells do not usually contain any vacuoles and if present they are small or
temporary. On the other hand plants have a large vacuole that is always present.
• Animal cells can change shape due to the lack of a cell wall and are usually rounded
whereas plant cells have a fixed shape kept by the presence of the cell wall.
1.2.10 Outline two roles of extracellular
components
• Animals
• The extracellular matrix (ECM) is made from glycoproteins secreted
from the cell, which serve the following functions:
– Provides support and anchorage for cells
– Segregates tissues from one another
– Regulates intercellular communication by sequestering growth factors (a
substance, such as a vitamin or hormone, that is required for the stimulation of
growth in living cells.)
Outline two roles of extracellular components
•
•
Plants
The cell wall in plants is made from cellulose secreted from the cell, which serves the
following functions:
– Provides support and mechanical strength for the cell (maintains cell shape)
– Prevents excessive water uptake by maintaining a stable, turgid state
– Serves as a barrier against infection by pathogens
…State the composition and function of the plant cell wall. (Just an FYI—not
an IB component)
• Three layers:
– middle lamella (between adjacent cells– attachment)
– primary cell wall
– secondary cell wall (stronger– has lignin for strength)
• Functions= structure, support, protection.
Bibliography / Acknowledgments
Jason de Nys