BTEC National Diploma Health Studies
Unit 32
Mobility and Exercise for Health and
Social Care
Assignment Brief 1- Bones and Joints
Tutor Name: Matthew Hopton
Student Name: _Helen Pitchers
Assignment Commencement Date: 15th September
2008
Assignment Completion Date: 12th December 2008
Assignment 1
Criteria to achieve:
Pass
P1x
P2x
P3
P4x
P5
P6
Merit
M1x
M2
M3
Distinction
D1
D2
Date Achieved
Tutor Signature
Actual Criteria Achieved:
Criteria
P1
P2
P4
M1
TASK 1 P1, M1

On the diagram of the skeleton, clearly shade the appendicular
skeleton in any colour. (Do not shade the axial skeleton)

Label the bones numbered 1-24.

Describe how bone shape is linked to bone function in the axial and
appendicular skeletons

Describe the growth and repair of bones.

Analyse factors affecting growth and repair including examples of
common homeostatic disorders of the skeleton and joints to help you
explain the effects of different influences on skeletal development
TASK 2 P2

Draw a diagram of a named synovial joint.

Explain the structure and function of the three main types of joints
found in the body i.e. fixed, cartilaginous and freely moveable; name at
least one example of each type you have explained.

Identify the six different types of synovial joint found in the body

Describe the functions of the main components of a synovial joint,
describe at least two disorders that may affect this joint
TASK 3 P4

Describe an exercise which involves a ball and socket joint and a hinge
joint (other joints may also be involved)

For the exercise described, name the movements involved at the
joint(s) you have mentioned. Comment upon factors which affect these
movements including the muscles involved.
Delivery and Assessment Windows
Assignment 1
Start Date
Finish Date
Hand In Date
15th September 2008
12th December 2008
19th January 2009
Human Skeleton
Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the anatomy of the musculo-skeletal system
2 Understand mechanisms of muscle contraction
3 Be able to relate balance, posture and body movement to the co-ordinated
action
of muscles around joints
4 Understand how common injuries and disorders of the musculo-skeletal
system
relate to structure and function.
1 Understand the anatomy of the musculo-skeletal system
Ossification: intramembranous, endochondrial
Development of skeleton: skeletal growth — lengthening of bones, closure of
epiphyses, development of normal spinal curvatures (cervical, thoracic,
lumbar);
mineral storage, the dynamic state of bone
Types of bone: histology of skeletal tissues — ligaments, tendons, cartilage,
bone
(compact, cancellous); structure of long bones, flat bones, bone marrow
Influencing factors: genetics, age, diet, effect of weight-bearing exercise,
disease
Names of bones: relationship between structure, shape and function; main
identifying features of — mandible and maxillae, bones of cranium, spine,
girdles,
limbs, chest; function of ligaments
Types of joints:
- moveable, eg ball and socket, hinge, gliding; synovial capsule, range of
movement
- immoveable, eg sutures of cranium, face, pelvis
- slightly moveable — public symphysis
2 Understand mechanisms of muscle contraction
Types of muscle: voluntary (skeletal); involuntary (smooth); cardiac
Histological aspects: cell shape and alignment; myofibril ultrastructure —
sarcomeres, actin, myosin; neuromuscular junction in voluntary muscle tissue
Biochemical aspects: actin, myosin; sliding filament theory — actomyosin,
calcium
ions, myoglobin; aerobic and anaerobic muscle contraction, fatigue, oxygen
debt
and recovery
Mechanical aspects: movement brought about by contraction of antagonistic
muscle groups; isotonic and isometric muscle contraction; stamina,
suppleness,
musculo-skeletal adaptations to regular exercise
3 Be able to relate balance, posture and body movement to the coordinated
action of muscles around joints
Named example: one of knee, hip, shoulder, elbow
Movements: all those relevant to joint chosen, eg flexion, extension,
adduction,
abduction, circumduction, principles of antagonistic and synergistic action
Muscle groups: eg quadriceps, hamstrings, calf, spinal muscles, gluteals,
pectorals, abdominals, shoulder, arm
Principles of levers: parts of a lever — effort, fulcrum, load; classes of lever —
first class, second class, third class; examples of levers in the body, eg
nodding of
head, straightening of bent arm, standing on tiptoe
Proprioception: spindle receptors in tendons, joints and muscles,
proprioception
reflexes, balance, visual input
4 Understand how common injuries and disorders of the musculoskeletal
system relate to structure and function
Injuries: sprain, muscle strain, fracture, dislocation, osteoarthritis, back pain,
paralysis
Disorders: kyphosis, scoliosis, lordosis; osteoporosis
Grading criteria
To achieve a pass grade the evidence must show that the learner is able
to:
P1 describe the structure and development of bone and the skeleton and the
factors that influence it
P2 explain the structure and functioning of different types of joints
P3 describe the structure and contraction of different types of muscle tissue
P4 explain the role of muscle groups and the principles of levers in bringing
about movement around a named moveable joint
P5 explain the concept of proprioception in relation to maintaining balance,
posture and locomotion
P6 explain common injuries and disorders in relation to musculo-skeletal
structure.
To achieve a merit grade the evidence must show that, in addition to the
pass criteria, the learner is able to:
M1 explain the effect of different influencing factors on skeletal
Development
M2 compare the characteristics of two types of muscle in relation to their
structure and functions in the body
M3 explain interactions of muscle groups in maintaining posture and in
locomotion of the whole body.
To achieve a distinction grade the evidence must show that, in addition
to the pass and merit criteria, the learner is able to:
D1 analyse how musculo-skeletal functioning is affected by exercise and how
exercise helps maintain healthy functioning of the musculo-skeletal system
D2 use knowledge of the structure and functioning of the musculo-skeletal
system to analyse the impact of common musculo-skeletal disorders on
mobility and locomotion.
In this assignment I am going to describe how bone shaped is
linked to bone function in the axial skeleton. I am also going to
discuss the repair and growth of bones as well as stating the main
joints in the body.
Axial bones
http://www.aclasta.co.nz/images/aclasta_skeleton_1.gif
The craniumThe cranium is comprised of twenty two interlocking cranial and
facial bones. The cranium is there to protect the brain. The cranial
plates and bones are held together by joints, the joins do not allow
movement apart from the jaw bone and mandible.
The Spine The vertebral column also known as the spine has thirty three
specialized bones, these are called vertebrae. These provide form
for the rest of the body and protect the spinal cord. There are
twelve thoracic vertebrae, forming from the back of the ribcage.
The sternumThe sternum also known as the breastbone is there as a organ
protector. It defends the heart, lungs and bits of your major arteries
form external forces. The sternum provides stability to the ribs that
are attached to it.
The ribsThe ribs are flat bones which form a protective shield around your
internal organs. There are a total of twenty four ribs, twelve on
each side of the body. The first set of seven ribs are called true
ribs. These connect in the back to the spine and connect in the
front to the sternum. The next ribs are called false ribs which
connect to the back of the spine. The last ones are called floating
ribs, and these two pairs of ribs are attached to the spine like all
the others except these ribs ‘float’ in front without being attached to
the sternum or any other rib.
Axial bones are named because they form the axis of the body.
They are associated with the general nervous system and protect
delicate organs such as the heart and the brain. Appendicular
bones basically connect to the axial bones. These bones are not
designed for protection there function is movement.
Appendicular bones The shoulder bone – The shoulder bone makes a girdle to connect
your arms to the sternum and rib cage for stability and support.
Everyone has two clavicles known as collar bones that attach on
one end of the breast plate and on the other end. This supports the
shoulder blades. The shoulder blades provide points of contact
and attachment for many muscles and the bone of each upper
arm.
Arm bone and hand bone – The arm is basically broke up into
three mains parts which are the upper arm, the lower arm and the
hand. The upper arm is a long bone. Each hand has twenty seven
bones, eight carpal bones that make up the wrist, five metacarpal
bones that extend the length of your palm, and fourteen phalanges
that form four fingers with three bones each along with a single
two-boned thumb.
The pelvic girdle – The pelvic girdle supports a person when they
sit down as that is where all their weight immediately goes. The hip
bones protect lower organs such as the bladder and for women the
opening in the centre of the girdle must be big enough for child
birth.
Bones of the thigh, leg and foot – The bone which connects the
pelvic girdle to the lower leg in the thigh is a bone called the femur.
This is the longest and the strongest bone in the body. The femur
connects through the knee joint to the shin bone. Slightly smaller
than the tibia is the other bone in the leg which is called the fibula.
This is responsible for muscular connections, while tibia makes
sure your foot and your knee don’t get any farther apart from each
other. Each foot has twenty six bones, seven tarsal bones that
make up the ankle, five metatarsal bones that make up the body of
your foot, and fourteen phalanges that form four toes with three
bones each with a big toe which has two bones.
The terms osteogenesis and ossification are often used to indicate
the process of bone formation. Parts of the skeleton form in the
first few weeks of conception. Bone development continues
throughout adulthood, bone development continues for repair of
fractures and for remodelling to meet lifestyles.
Bones grow in length at the epiphyseal plate by a process that is
similar to endochondral ossification. The cartilage in the region of
the epiphyseal plate next to the epiphysis continues to grow by
mitosis. Osteoblasts move and ossify the matrix to form bone. This
process continues throughout childhood and the adolescence
years until the cartilage growth slows and finally stops. Even
though bones stop growing in length in early adulthood, they can
continue to increase in thickness or diameter throughout life in
response to stress from increased muscle activity or to weight.
2.
Although bone is a very strong material it can break in a number of
ways with enough force pushing, pulling or twisting.
Some breaks include:
Open fracture- Unlike closed fractures in which all portions of the
broken bone remain within the skin, open fractures result in a piece
of bone sticking out the skin.
Complete fracture- This is when the breaks nearly into two pieces.
Single fracture- This is when a bone is only damaged in one area.
Spiral fracture- This occurs when the bone has been twisted past
its maximum point.
Almost immediately after the break, the body begins to try and put
itself back together again.
When a bone breaks, the fissure also severs the blood vessels
running down the length of the bone. Blood leaks out of these
veins and quickly forms a clot called a fracture hematoma. This
helps to stabilize the bone and keep both pieces lined up for
mending. The clot also cuts off the flow of blood to the jagged bone
edges. Without fresh blood, these bone cells quickly die. Swelling
and inflammation follow due to the work of cells removing dead
and damaged tissue. Tiny blood vessels grow into the fracture
hematoma to help the healing process.
After a few days the fracture hematoma develops tougher tissue,
transforming it into a soft callus. Cells called fibroblasts begin
producing fibers of collagen, the major protein in bone and
connective tissue. Chondroblasts then begin to produce a type of
cartilage called fibrocartilage. This transforms the callus into a
tougher fibrocartilaginous callus, which bridges the gap between
the two pieces of bone. This callus generally lasts for about three
weeks.
Next, osteoblasts move in and produce bone cells, transforming
the callus into a bone callus. This hard shell lasts three to four
months, and it provides necessary protection and stability for the
bone to enter the final stage of healing.
At this point, the body establishes the position of the bone within
the flesh, begins reabsorbing bits of dead bone, and creates a hard
callus to bridge the gap between the two pieces of bone. However,
this bulge of tissue needs a lot of work before the bone can take
any strain.
Osteoporosis is a common homeostatic disorder of the skeleton it
affects the bones which makes the bone more fragile and prone to
break after a minor bump or fall. These broken bones are often
referred to as fragility fractures. Although fractures can occur in
different parts of the body, the wrist, hip and spine are most
commonly affected.
Bones stop growing in length between the ages of 16 and 18, but
bone density continues to increase slowly until a person is in
their mid 20s. At this point the balance between bone demolition
and bone construction stays stable. After the age of 35, bone loss
increases very gradually as part of the natural ageing
process. This bone loss becomes more rapid in women for several
years following the menopause and can lead to osteoporosis and
an increased risk of broken bones, especially in later life.
Consequences - Having osteoporosis does not automatically mean
that your bones will break, it just means that you have a bigger risk
of fracture. Thin, fragile bones in themselves are not painful but the
broken bones that can result, can cause pain and other
problems. Osteoporosis does not generally slow or stop the
healing process. Bones that break because of osteoporosis will still
heal in the same way as they do in people who do not have
osteoporosis, which is usually about six to eight weeks.
Prevention - The older we get, the greater our risk of breaking a
bone. Osteoporosis becomes more common as the density of
bone decreases and bones become generally less strong and
more fragile. Falling is also much more common because of poor
balance and co-ordination leading to a higher risk of breaking a
hip. Lifestyle changes and keeping active can help to prevent
falling. Drug treatments, to strengthen bones, are available for
those at highest risk of fracture.
Fixed joint http://www.zimmer.com/web/enUS/images/
products/joints/knees/lps_flex_fixed_knee2.jpg
A fixed joint is a joint between two bones that do not move. A good
example of this is in the skull - the skull plates do not move
together or against each other, but they are connected or fused.
Fixed joints are also called fused joints for this reason.
Cartilaginous joint - A Cartilaginous joint is a joint in the skeletal
system which is connected tightly by cartilage, an example of this
would be the spinal column. There are two other types of joint also,
a fibrous joint that does not allow any movement what so ever
such as the cranium (scull) and they synovial joint which is the
most common joint in the skeletal system.
http://www.healthydirect.com/medias/sys_master/8450599988759728.gif
Freely moveable joint - There are four types of freely movable
joints which are grouped according to the shapes of the surfaces of
the adjacent bones. Ball and socket joints permit circular
movement. Circular movement is the largest range of moment. The
joints of the shoulder blade are an example of a ball and socket
joint. The hinge joint permits back and fourth movement like the
opening and closing of a door. The joints where the femur,patella,
fibula, and tibia connect are example of a hinge joint. Pivot joints
allow one bone to rotate around another. The joints where the
humerus, radius, and ulna meet are an example of a pivot joint.
Saddle joints allow one bone to slide in two directions. The thumb
is an example of a saddle joint.
http://www.marymount.k12.ny.us/marynet/stwbwk05/05bio/caskeletal/html
/
Pivot joints – Also known as rotary joints. These joints allow for
rotation around an axis. There is a pivot joint near the top of your
spine that allows your head to move from side to side.
Hinge joints – This type of joint can open and close like a door.
Your elbow is a hinge joint. Your biceps and triceps muscles are
basically two people standing on opposite sides of a wall (the
humerus, or upper-arm bone), each with one hand reaching over
to its respective side of a door (the bones of the lower arm). The
biceps "shuts" the door, by contracting and lessening the degree of
the joint angle, and the triceps, when it pulls on its respective side
of the door, "opens" the door, as the hinge then widens.
Gliding Joints - This type of joint features two bone plates that glide
against one another. The joints in your ankles and wrists are
gliding joints. (Holding your forearm steady while your hand points
upward and then waving side-to-side with your hand is an example
of this joint's functioning.)
Ball and socket joints - This is the most maneuverable type of joint.
Your shoulder and your hip are both ball-and-socket joints. These
joints feature a connection between one bone-end equipped with a
protrusion that fits into the receptive space at the end of the other
bone in the joint. These joints allow for forward motion, backward
motion and circular rotation.
Saddle Joints - These joints allow for two different types of
movement. For instance, a saddle joint allows your thumb to move
toward and away from your forefinger (as when you spread all five
digits out, then bring them all together side-by-side) as well as
cross over the palm of your hand toward your little finger.
Conyloid joints - These joints are similar to ball-and-socket joints,
just without the socket.
Football is an exercise which involves a ball and socket joint and a
hinge joint.
http://www.hopkinsortho.org/pfps_1.gif
The knee is a hinge joint held together by four ligaments. A
ligament is a structure in the knee that holds the bones together
and helps to control joint movement or motion. There is a ligament
on each side of the knee (the collateral ligaments) and two
ligaments deep inside the knee. The two ligaments inside the knee
"cross" each other are called the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL)
and the posterior cruciate ligament (PCL). Both ligaments attach
on one side to the end of the thigh bone (femur) and on the other
to the top of the shin bone (tibia).
During activity, the ACL controls how far forward the tibia can
"slide" relative to the femur: it essentially acts to prevent too much
forward movement this could cause an injury during football if it
went too far forward. While some degree of motion or sliding is
normal and is required for knee function, too much motion may
damage other structures in the knee which can lead to long term
problems in some patients. For football players it is essential to try
and avoid these kinds of movements as they could end up in
strains, fractures and brakes.
Factors which affect these are things such as:
Age- Depending on a person’s age depends on how likely they are
to become injured during a game of football. The older someone is
the more fragile they become and more susceptible to injury.
Physical fitness – If someone is not used to exercising they could
do themselves a lot of damage as they are using muscles which
haven’t been worked in a long period of time. If someone is
physically unfit they could seriously damage themselves.
Environment- Depending on where someone is could affect the out
come. If someone was in the park having a friendly game of
football they are less likely to get injured then they are on a football
pitch. Weather can also affect things as if it is raining you are more
likely to slip over.
The muscles involved when playing football are:
Gluteus maximus, minimus
Quadriceps (Rectus Femoris, Vastus Lateralis, Vestus medialis)
Hamstrings (Biceps Femoris, semimembranosus, semitendinosus)
Soleus
Gastrocnemius
Tibialis Anterior
Peroneus Longus
Bibliography
http://www.physioroom.com/products/knee_braces.php
http://kidshealth.org/kid/htbw/muscles.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ball_and_socket_joint