Motivation Concepts
Session 10
Motivation

Motivation is defined as the processes that account
for an individual’s intensity, direction and
persistence of effort towards attaining a goal.
 Motivation is a result of interaction of individual
and situation.
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation
 Intrinsic Motivation
being driven by positive
feelings associated with
doing well on a task or job
 Extrinsic Motivation
motivation caused by the
desire to attain specific
outcomes
Motivation Theories
Early Theories (Content Theories)
 Hierarchy of Needs Theory – Abraham Maslow
 ERG Theory – Clayton Alderfer
 Theory X and Theory Y – Douglas McGregor

Two Factor Theory – Frederick Herzberg
 Theory of Needs - David McClelland
Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Theory
There is a hierarchy of five
needs—physiological, safety,
social, esteem, and selfactualization; as each need is
substantially satisfied, the next
need becomes dominant.
Self-Actualization
The drive to become what one is capable of becoming.
Contd
Lower-Order Needs
Higher-Order Needs
Needs that are satisfied
externally; physiological
and safety needs.
Needs that are satisfied
internally; social, esteem,
and self-actualization
needs.
Source: Motivation and Personality , 2nd ed,, by A.H. Maslow, 1970.
Reprinted by permission of Prentice Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
ERG Theory (Alderfer)
Core Needs –
 Existence
 Relatedness
 Growth
Theory X and Theory Y (McGregor)
Theory X (Negative in
nature)
Assumes that employees dislike
work, lack ambition, avoid
responsibility, and must be
directed and coerced to perform.
Theory Y (Positive in
nature)
Assumes that employees like
work, seek responsibility, are
capable of making decisions,
and exercise self-direction and
self-control when committed to
a goal.
Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg)
Two-Factor (Motivation-Hygiene) Theory
Intrinsic factors (Motivators) are related to job
satisfaction, while extrinsic factors (Hygiene factors) are
associated with job dissatisfaction.
Motivators –
Promotional opportunities, personal growth,
recognition, responsibility and achievement
Hygiene Factors
Quality of supervision, pay, physical working
conditions, job security, Company policy and
administration, supervision
Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction
Contd
Criticism –
1. Procedure is limited by methodology.
2. The reliability of methodology is questioned.
3. No overall measure of satisfaction was utilized.
4. Methodology doesn’t show relationship between
satisfaction and productivity. It looked only at
satisfaction.
David McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Need for Achievement
Need for Affiliation
The drive to excel, to achieve
in relation to a set of
standards, to strive to
succeed.
The desire for friendly
and close personal
relationships.
Need for Power
The need to make others
behave in a way that they
would not have behaved
otherwise.
nPow
nAch
nAff
Matching High Achievers and Jobs
Contemporary Theories (Process Theories)
 Cognitive Evaluation Theory
 Goal Setting Theory
 Management by Objectives (MBO)
 Self Efficacy Theory
 Reinforcement Theory
 Equity Theory
 Expectancy Theory
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
 It states that allocating extrinsic rewards for behavior
that had been previously intrinsically rewarding tends
to decrease the overall level of motivation.
Reasons –
 An individual experiences a loss of control
 Natural inclination to work towards the task
 Individual’s pay should be made noncontingent on
performance in order to avoid decreasing intrinsic
motivation.
Contd
 Extrinsic rewards that are verbal (receiving praise
from a supervisor) or tangible (money) can have
different effects on intrinsic motivation.
 Verbal rewards increase intrinsic motivation while
tangible rewards undermine it.
Self – Concordance –
Reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their
interests and core values.
Goals
 Goal what an individual
is trying to accomplish
Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)
 Intentions to work toward a goal is a major source of work motivation
 Specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher performance.
Factors influencing the goals–performance
relationship:
Goal commitment, adequate self-efficacy, task
characteristics, and national culture
Guidelines for Writing “SMART” Goals
Specific
Measurable
Attainable
Results oriented
Time bound
Insights from Goal Setting Research
1) Difficult goals lead to higher performance
2) Specific, difficult goals lead to higher performance
for simple rather than complex tasks
3) Feedback enhances the effect of specific, difficult
goals
4) Participative goals, assigned goals, and self-set
goals are equally effective
5) Goal commitment and monetary incentives affect
goal-setting outcomes
Management by Objectives (MBO)
Implementing Goal Setting –
Management by Objectives (MBO) –
Participatively setting the goals that are tangible,
verifiable and measureable.
It uses bottom up and top down approach.
 Goal Specificity
 Participation in decision making
 An explicit time period
 Performance feedback
Self Efficacy Theory (Social Cognitive/ Social Learning)
Individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing
a task.
Four ways to increase self efficacy – (Bandura)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Enactive mastery
Vicarious modeling
Verbal persuasion
Arousal
Application –
Training programs (Use Enactive Mastery)
Verbal Persuasion (Pygmalion / Galatea effect)

Intelligence and Personality can increase Self Efficacy.
Joint Effects of Goals and Self Efficacy on Performance
Individual has
confidence that given
level of performance
will be attained (self
efficacy)
Individual has
higher level of job
or task
performance
Manager sets
difficult, specific
goal for job or task
Individual sets
higher personal (self
set) goal for their
performance
Reinforcement Theory
The assumption that behavior is a function of its
consequences (Behaviorist View)
Concepts:
Behavior is environmentally caused.
Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by
providing (controlling) consequences.
Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.
Equity Theory
Equity Theory
Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes
with those of others and then respond to eliminate
any inequities.
Referent
Comparisons:
Self-inside
Self-outside
Other-inside
Other-outside
Equity Theory (cont’d)
Equity Theory (cont’d)
Choices for dealing with inequity:
1. Change inputs (slack off)
2. Change outcomes (increase output)
3. Distort/change perceptions of self
4. Distort/change perceptions of others
5. Choose a different referent person
6. Leave the field (quit the job)
Equity Theory (cont’d)
Propositions relating to inequitable pay:
1. Over rewarded hourly employees produce more
than equitably rewarded employees.
2. Over rewarded piece-work employees produce
less, but do higher quality piece work.
3. Under rewarded hourly employees produce
lower quality work.
4. Under rewarded employees produce larger
quantities of lower-quality piece work than
equitably rewarded employees.
Model of Organizational Justice
Distributive Justice
Perceived fairness of outcomes
Eg – I got the pay raise I deserved
Procedural Justice
Perceived fairness of process used to
determine outcome
Eg – I had input into the process used to
give raises and was given an explanation
of why I received the raise
Interactional Justice
Perceived degree to which one is treated with
dignity and respect
Eg – When telling me about my raise, my
supervisor was very nice
Organizational Justice
Overall perception of
what is fair
Eg – I think this is a
fair place to work
Expectancy Theory
Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom)
The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way
depends on the strength of an expectation that the
act will be followed by a given outcome and on the
attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.
Expectancy
Instrumentality
Valence
Expectancy Theory Relationships
 Effort–Performance Relationship
 The probability that exerting a given amount of effort
will lead to performance.
 Performance–Reward Relationship
 The belief that performing at a particular level will lead
to the attainment of a desired outcome.
 Rewards–Personal Goals Relationship
 The degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an
individual’s goals or needs and the attractiveness of
potential rewards for the individual.
Contd
 If I give a maximum effort, will it be recognized in
my performance appraisal?
 If I get a good performance appraisal, will it lead to
organizational rewards?
 If I am rewarded, are the rewards ones that I find
personally attractive?
Global Implications
 Maslow’s need hiearchy and Equity theory aligns
with US culture.
 Asian society, being collectivist, focuses on social
view and relationship between an individual and
interpersonal standards.
 In western society, motivation and behavior occur in
a social vacuum.