Qualitative Research
Definitions
Quantitative Research - investigation in which
the researcher attempts to understand some
larger reality by isolating and measuring
components of that reality without regard to their
contextual setting.
 Qualitative Research - investigation in which
the researcher attempts to understand some
larger reality by examining it in a holistic way or
by examining components of that reality within
their contextual setting.

Different Ways of Looking at Things
 Quantitative
Positivistic
 Epistemological basis is Realism
 Dates to the Age of Enlightenment

 Qualitative
Naturalistic (Post-Positivistic [PRE?])
 Epistemological basis is Idealism
 Dates informally to prehistoric times
Formally to ancient Greece

Quantitative Research
Reality
is independent of human
understanding
Reality can be defined as separate
and observable variables
Goal of research is to define
and measure those variables
Most accurate way to measure variables
is individually and in isolation
We understand reality by defining all the
pertinent variables
Qualitative Research
Human understanding and
interpretation define reality
 Complex reality can be understood
only as amalgam and not as simply
a sum of its parts
 Goal of research is to examine complex
phenomena to define the reality within
 To be meaningful, inquiry must be holistic
and contextual

Researchers Argue
Quantitative researchers
fail because they can
neither adequately define nor accurately measure
enough of the variables to understand complex
natural interactions.
Qualitative
researchers cannot rigorously
examine the detailed structures underlying
complex natural interactions.
Researchers Argue
 “Purists”
contend
Qualitative and quantitative methodologies are
incompatible because they have different
epistemological bases.
 Using them together is “mixing paradigms.”

 Others
believe
Qualitative and quantitative methodologies are
simply different ways of looking at phenomena
 Using them together is symbiotic

Characteristics of
Qualitative Research
Purpose
is understanding
Oriented toward discovery
Uses subjective data
Extracts meaning from data
Interprets results in
context
Focus is holistic
Advantages of
Qualitative Research
 In-depth Examination of
Phenomena
 Uses subjective information
 Not limited to rigidly definable variables
 Examine complex questions that can be
impossible with quantitative methods
 Deal with value-laden questions
 Explore new areas of research
 Build new theories
Disadvantages of
Qualitative Research
 Subjectivity leads
to procedural problems
 Replicability is very difficult
 Researcher bias is built in and unavoidable
 In-depth, comprehensive approach to
data gathering limits scope
 Labor intensive, expensive
 Not understood well by
“classical” researchers
Organizational Structures
Historical Analysis
Ethnography
Phenomenology
Life
History,
Chronology,
Historiography
Case Study
Historical Analysis
Archival
Research
Primary Documents
 Secondary Sources

Artifacts
Relics
Oral
Histories
Ethnography
External
Observation
Passive Observation
Balanced Participation Observation
Participant Observation
Life History, Chronology,
Historiography
Archival/Historical
Personal
Journals
Written Journals
 Electronic Journals

Electronic
Media
Long Term Observation
Interviews
Case Study
Detailed,
in-depth examination of a
person, group, or setting
Multiple data sources, perspectives
Focus is on the individual or group, not
the population
Meaning is extracted from observation
Findings are instructive, not generalizable
Holistic Approach
Researcher
seeks a complete picture of a
total, complex situation
There may be no attempt to isolate
specific variables or to answer specific
questions
If specific questions are asked, the
answers are sought within the context in
which the phenomena naturally occur.
Internal Validity
Validity
is primarily a positivistic concept
In qualitative research, equates to credibility
The right setting and informants
 Accurate reflection of situation, informant
perceptions
 Multiple approaches lead to similar results
 Multiple researchers yield similar interpretations
 Peer review/Informant review

External Validity
In
qualitative research, equates to
transferability
Transferability is responsibility of reader,
not researcher
 Provide dense description
 Use nominated informant sample
 Provide detailed demographic and
situational description

To Seek Validity
(Wolcott, 1990)
(Think Credibility, Transferability)
Listen
and observe carefully
Be candid
Record accurately
Begin writing report early
Use primary data in report
Use all data for final report
Seek feedback
Seek balance
Write accurately
Reliability
 Reliability
is primarily a positivistic concept
 Reliability in qualitative research equates to
dependability
Different researchers reach similar
interpretations
 Repeated examinations produce similar
observations
 Multiple researchers produce similar
interpretations of the same data

Triangulation
 Multiple
perspectives, data sources,
researchers, data collection techniques
 Strongest evidence for credibility,
dependability, transferability
 Concept originated in navigation
Navigation using known points
 The more known points/angles, the
more accurate the “fix” on the
unknown location

Corroboration
 Multiple
informants hold similar
perceptions
 Same informant responds consistently to
related questions
 An attempt to confirm consistency of
perception not accuracy of perception
Constant Comparison
 Collect
and analyze initial data
 Develop tentative conclusions,
hypotheses, themes
 Collect and analyze additional data
 Test against initial conclusions, hypotheses,
themes
 Seek new perspectives, data sources
 Write, re-write, re-assess, re-write, etc...
Discovery Approach to
Qualitative Research
 Identify setting
to be studied
 Conduct initial data collection
 Analyze for emerging themes
 Formulate tentative questions, hypotheses,
theses
 Focus subsequent data collection to test/expand
initial themes
 Questions, themes, hypotheses, theories
EMERGE from the research
Analytic Induction Approach
to Qualitative Research
Define
specific questions
Define setting
Identify informants
Collect initial data
Develop initial hypothesis
Analytic Induction Approach
to Qualitative Research
Collect
additional data to test fit of
hypothesis
Redefine questions or reformulate
hypothesis based on further data
collection and analysis
Search for negative case to disprove
hypothesis
Qualitative Research: A
Different Way of Looking
at the World
Naturalistic
Holistic
Contextual
Rich
In-depth
Reality
derived not measured
Unstructured Interview
 Define
basic goal
 Select setting for comfort of informant
 Try to establish rapport, trust
 Gently guide discussion toward goal
 Pursue profitable leads, tangents
 Make careful notes or electronic recording
during interview if practicable
 as soon afterward as possible otherwise

Structured Interview
Define
precise objectives
Develop, validate, field test interview
schedule (protocol)
Select setting for comfort of informant
Try to establish rapport, trust
Initiate interview using protocol
Focus on specifics of protocol
Structured Interview
 Do
not accept yes/no responses,
probe for more
 Pursue profitable tangents
 Remain flexible to encourage informant to talk
 Gently guide informant through protocol
 Make careful notes or electronic recording
during interview if practicable
 as soon afterward as possible otherwise

Focus Group
 Define
goals
 Select participants
 Establish rapport
 Initiate discussion
 Encourage free discussion, but
 Guide discussion toward the goals
 Avoid contaminating discussion with
own biases
Ethnographic Observation
 Identify Goals
 Select
site
 Establish rapport
 Determine critical informants
 Make detailed field notes
 Begin writing report from the start
 Observations external, passive, balanced, or
participant