Part 1: Chapter 2, On the Eve of Islam
ISLAM: TWO ROOTS
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Arabia (next session)
Ancient Hellenistic-Iranian World
Both a break and a continuation of this world
Iran
Achaemenids (Hakhamanesh), c. 559-331 BCE
- Cyrus (Kurush) the Great unites Medes and Persians, c. 559 BCE,
- conquers Babylon, 539 BCE
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Greek dominance 331- c. 246 BCE - 651 CE
- Alexander the Great destroys Persepolis, ends the Achaemenid Dynasty.
- Seleucid (successor Greek) dynasty, c. 323 BCE - c. 246 BCE
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Parthian Dynasty, c. 246 BCE - 227 CE. Gradual cultural Persianizing
Sasanian Dynasty, 227 CE - 651 CE
- Zorastrianism 'refounded', made the state religion.
- Continuing Struggles with the Roman/Byzantine empire.
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Muslims conquer Iran :
- Battles of Qadesiyeh (637), Nahavand (642),
- death of Yazdagerd III, last Sassanian Shah, 651.
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Zoroastrian Religion
Mazdaism
Good
“The Good Religion”
Evil
Ormazd (Ahura Mazda, “The Wise Lord”)
Ahriman (Angra Mainyu,)
Amesha Spentas (6 Holy immortals)
chooses evil
yazatas
divs (daevas
World created by Ormazd (arena of struggle of Good vs Evil)
Humans (may choose good or evil)
Shah (represents Ormazd)
Rebels,enemies
Priests
Heretics, etc.
Saoshyant
Final Judgment
Kingship in Iran
Ohrmazd bestows part of his sovereignty on the shah:
- the king is a symbol of God;
- royal power on the material plane parallels divine power on the
spiritual plane.
- royal khvarenah (effulgence, blessing, fortune), probably related
to the later Muslim idea of the Sultan as the Shadow of God on
earth.
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“[If the shah rules well] The empire will prosper, the common
people will be freed from fear and enjoy a good life, science will
advance, culture will be looked after, good manners will be
further refined, and men will be generous, just and grateful,
many a virtue will they practice and perfect will their goodness
be.” (Denkart, late Zoroastrian text)
“The principal characteristic of kings is pleasure . . . pleasure is
consonant with kingship provided it is rooted in greatness.
Pleasure rooted in greatness does not pass away” (Denkart in
Zaehner, 1961, 299)
Religion and government
- “religion and government are twins” (sometimes
ascribed to Muhammad but certainly of Iranian
origin.)
- Jamshid, the first ruler, said to have refused to accept
both kingship and priesthood
- God said to have granted kingship to Gayomarth (the
Iranian Adam) and charged Seth with the affairs of
religion (another version, from a Muslim source)
- Thus priesthood is parallel to kingship
“Nor can religion be stable without royalty
Nor can royalty be permanent without religion:
They are two foundations interlaced with one another,
Which intelligence hath combined in one."
(Firdowsi, quoted in Martin, Islam and Modernism 33)
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Manicheism
Founded by Mani (d. c. 275)
- claimed to be a prophet
- successor to Zarathushtra, Buddha and Christ
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Spread to Roman Empire in the West and China in the East
Teachings:
Material world is evil and darkness, opposed to the Realm of Light
sparks from the realm of light have become captive in material human bodies
may escape through a regimen of strict asceticism, including celibacy and
vegetarianism.
Only the elect can do this
Others can benefit by following a less rigorous regime and supporting the elect.
Politics:
- Mani sought support of shah, gained it for a time
- Uigur rulers in central Asia adopted Manicheism 763 – 840
- Heavily persecuted before and under Islam
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Byzantine Christianity (Eastern Orthodoxy)
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4th Century: Christianity first tolerated and then becomes the
state religion
476 End of the Western Empire
1453 End of Eastern (Byzantine) Empire
Doctrines:
 Trinity:
- One God in three “persons”, Father, Son, Holy Spirit
- Christ is “the only begotten Son of God, begotten of his Father
before all ages; God of God, Light of Light, True God of True
God, of one substance (or being) with the Father . . .” (“Nicene”
Creed)
 Incarnation:
- “one and the same Son . . . perfect in Godhead and perfect in
manhood . . . in two natures, inconfusedly, unchangeably,
divisibly . . . , concurring in one person . . . not divided into two
persons . . .” (Creed of Chalcedon)
- “born of the Virgin Mary, the Mother of God (theotokos, lit.: God
bearer) (Creed of Chalcedon)
Orthodoxy continued
Worship; Churches
- Icons: “windows on eternity”
- Iconostasis – sense of mystery
- Christos Pantokrator – Risen Christ is ruler of the
universe
- A Russian reaction to Orthodox worship in
Constantinople (10th century):
“We knew not whether we were in heaven or on
earth, for surely there is no such splendor or
beauty anywhere upon earth. We cannot describe
it to you: only this we know, that God dwells
there among men, and that their service
surpassses the worship or all other places. For
we cannot forget that beauty.”
Church and Society related
- State/emperor as “icon” of God’s rule
- “Melkite” – follower of the king/emperor
- Eventual development of ethnic churches
- Clergy and laity; Monks and higher clergy are
celibate
- In Syria: clergy were generally Greek but the
people spoke Aramaic (later Arabic)
Nestorian Christianity
Also called “The Church of the East”
- Named after Nestorius, who was for a time Patriarch
of Constantinople (428-31).
- Seems to have emphasized the distinction between
the divine and human natures of Christ
- In particular, he objected to the term theotokos used
of the Virgin Mary
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History
- Initially strong in Syria and Iraq
- Spread eastward to Iran, Central Asia, China
- Strong for some time under Islam
- Nestorians made major contributions to Islamic
civilization; especially translations of philosophy.
- Declined after the Mongol invasions.
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Monophysites
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Christ has one, divine, nature (mono+physis), which clothed itself in
humanity
Armenian (Gregorian) Church:
- From about 300 (first country to have a Christian ruler).
- Struggled to maintain political and cultural independence vis-à-vis
Romans and Persian, later Byzantines and Muslims (and others).
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Jacobite Church: Strong in Syria until the Crusades. Syriac language.
Coptic Church:
- Strong in Egypt, spread to Ethiopia.
- Strong emphasis on monasticism (Christian monasticism began in
Egypt).
- Persecuted by Byzantines.
- Eventually declined under Islam.
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The Monophysite and Nestorian churches represented cultures different
from the Greek. This, probably more than doctrinal issues, accounts for
their continuing separation from the “Orthodox” churches.
Jews and Judaism
Dates, people, places
 c 1700 BCE ?
 c 1300 BCE ?
 c 1013-973 BCE
 586 BCE
 538 BCE
 331 BCE
 168-63 BCE
 63 BCE - 638 CE
 70 CE
 c 200 CE
 c 220 CE
 c 600 CE
 634-40 CE
Abraham (Avraham) “Our Father”
Moses (Moshe) “Our Father”
United Kingdom under David and Solomon (Shlomo)
Destruction of Temple, Babylonian exile, diaspora
Begin to return to Land of Israel
Alexander takes the Land; Greek rule
Maccabees – revolt, independence in Land
Roman / Byzantine rule
Temple destroyed during revolt against Romans
Mishna promulgated
Babylonian academy founded (under Persian rule)
Babylonian Talmud completed
Muslims take Syria, including Land of Israel
Diaspora:
 Probably from 586 on most Jews lived outside of the Land of Israel
 Seen as “exile”
 Punishment for sin
 Return in the time of the Messiah
Rabbi Ben Zakkai on the Destruction of the Temple
Once, as Rabbi Yohanan ben Zakkai was coming
forth from Jerusalem, Rabbi Joshua followed after
him and beheld the Temple in ruins.
“Woe to us,” Rabbi Joshua cried, “that this, the
place where the iniquities of Israel were atoned
for, is laid waste!”
“My son,” Rabbi Yohanan said to him, “be not
grieved. We have another atonement as effective
as this. And what is it? Acts of mercy, as it is
said, For I desire mercy and not sacrifice.” (Hosea
6:6)
(Avot de Rabbi Natan, ch. 6, quoted in Neusner,
Between Time and Eternity, 33, modified)
Torah
- The central concept and practice, especially after the destruction
of the Temple and the end of sacrifice
- Written authority
- Bible (Tanach: Torah, Prophets, Writings)
- Mishnah (laws)
- Talmud (Mishnah + Gemara, commentary)
- Contents:
Halakah (Halacha) – law, practice (most important)
Haggada – theology, myth, stories, etc
Rabbis: study, interpret these authorities
Talmud on Study and Practice
Which is greater: study or practice?
Rabbi Tarfon said, “Practice is greater".
Rabbi Akiba answered, “Study is greater, for it leads to practice.
Then they all answered and said, Study is greater, for it leads to
practice.”
Gnostics
Several movements:
- some scholars consider them a separate religion
- some were Christian or Jewish in form
- e.g. Valentinus (active c 135-165) and Marcion (active c 140s)
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Gnosis:
esoteric knowledge or wisdom
imparted by the teacher to initiates.
knowledge of one’s true self, which has fallen from the highest
spiritual realm and become trapped in the world of matter
the means of return, salvation
Brought by a Messenger from the spiritual realm (e.g. Christ)
Often inversion of standard ideas: e.g. Serpent in Eden offered
true wisdom, Old Testament as work of lower god (Marcion)
Docetism: Christ did not have a material body, “appeared” to.
Philosophy
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Philo+Sophia = Love of Wisdom
Covered: physics, metaphysics, ethics, politics, and much else
Main figures
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Socrates (d. 399 BCE),
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Plato (d. 347 BCE)
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Aristotle (d. 322 BCE).
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Philo of Alexandria – Jewish philosopher (c. 20 BCE – c. 40
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Christian apologists: e.g. Justin Martyr (d. c. 165 CE)
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Plotinus (205–c. 270 CE)
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School of Athens closed in 529 CE
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Schools in Sasanian territory CE
CE)
Plato
- Ideas/forms – material world is imperfect copy
- Soul: immortal, prexistent, contemplated the form
- Intellectual effort: means of attaining vision of forms
Cave: Most people see only images or reality projected on the back of the cave
Republic: should be ruled by philosophers who have seen the true forms
Plotinus
- The One, above being
- Universe emanates from it (as rays from sun)
- Evil is non-being
- Material world is imperfect (not evil)
- Turn from material world to realize unity with the One
Pre-Axial
Ultimate reality
Supernatural
Gods within
nature
Mediator
Iran
Jewish
Christian
(Orthodox)
Philosophy
(Platonism)
Ormazd
YHWH
God
God, Trinity
God, One
Amesha Spentas,
Yazatas, divs
Angels
devil
demons
Angels
devil
demons
Forms, ideas
As above;
Saoshyant
Torah
Christ
Intellect, Logos
Action, ritual,
ethical
Sacrifice
Magic
Follow customs
Fire sacrifice
Good thought,
word, deed
Sacrifice to 70
Prayer
Deeds
Study
Sacrament
Active love
Thinking
Ethical Actions,
Moderation
Religious actors
Priests,
shamans
Priests
Priests
Rabbis
Priests
Monks
Independent
thinkers
Social group
Limit to ethnic
Iranian,
conversion
possible
Jewish,
Conversion
possible
Multi-ethnic;
conversion
encouraged
Trans-ethnic
Individual
Individual
immersed in
group
Individual is
locus of ethical
struggle, but
within society
Israel, “Holy
People”
Individuals obey
(or not) halakah
Church
Individuals take
sacraments,
obey (or not)
Individual
thinkers,
“schools” of
philosophy
Future life
Diverse
Individual
rewarded for
actions
Redemption of
Israel
Individual
rewarded for
actions
Individual
rewarded for
faith, actions
Diverse; result of
individual effort