The Epic
Beowulf
Contents
-
Background and origins
The Beowulf manuscript
Beowulf – the hero
Story, characters and
themes
- Authorship
- Language and verse
form
Background and origins
Beowulf is one of the oldest English epic poem.
In the poem, Beowulf, a hero of a Germanic
tribe from southern Sweden called the Geats
(Gauts), travels to Denmark to help defeat a
monster named Grendel. This poem, about
Danish and Swedish kings and heroes was
preserved in England because the English people
are descendents of Germanic tribes called
Angles, Saxons and Jutes. Thus Beowulf tells a
story about the old days in their homeland.
The background of the poem
is historical. Hrothgar and
his court are known to us
from various sources;
Hygelac, the king of the
Gauts was killed in an
unsuccessful raid on the
Rhine estuary in 520
according to Gregory of
Tours. The wars between
the Gauts and Swedes, that
form a background of the
second part are also
historical. Of Beowulf we
know nothing, though he
may have existed also.
The Beowulf manuscript
The precise date of the
manuscript is debated, but
most estimates place it
close to 1000. Traditionally
the poem’s date of
composition has been
estimated, on linguistic and
other grounds, as
approximately 650-800.
More recently, doubt has
been raised about the
linguistic criteria for dating,
with some scholars
suggested a date as late as
the 11th century, near the
time of the manuscript’s
copying.
The poem appears in what is today called
the Beowulf manuscript or Nowell Codex
(Cotton Vitellius A. XV), along with other
works. The manuscript is the product of
two different scribes, the second and more
accurate scribe taking over at line 1939 of
Beowulf.
The poem is known only from a single
manuscript. The spellings in the surviving
copy of the poem mix the West Saxon and
Anglian dialects of Old English, though
they are predominantly West Saxon.
Beowulf –the hero
Beowulf scholar Tolkien noted that the name
Beowulf almost certainly means bee-hunter in
Old English. The name could therefore be a
kenning for bear due to the bear’s love of honey.
In the poem Beowulf is not represented as the
mighty warrior of the heroic sagas who knows
nothing outside the battlefield and the beer-hall,
whose virtues can be summed up in three
words-strength, courage and loyalty. He belongs
to another age and embodies another ideal - the
Christian one. Of course he too possesses the
pagan virtues, he is after all a prince and a
warrior, but the virtues that the poet stresses
are of another order – mildness, courtesy, love
of duty and justice, but above all mildness.
Several times the idea is expressed that the days
of violence and cruelty are over.
Story, characters and themes
Story
Beowulf begins with a history of the great Danish King Scyld (whose funeral
is described in the Prologue). King Hrothgar, Scyld's great-grandson, is well
loved by his people and successful in war. He builds a lavish hall, called
Heorot, to house his vast army, and when the hall is finished, the Danish
warriors gather under its roof to celebrate. Grendel, a monster who lives at
the bottom of a nearby mere, is provoked by the singing and celebrating of
Hrothgar's followers. He appears at the hall late one night and kills thirty of
the warriors in their sleep. For the next twelve years, the fear of Grendel's
fury casts a shadow over the lives of the Danes. Hrothgar and his advisors
can think of nothing to calm the monster's anger. Beowulf, prince of the
Geats, hears about Hrothgar's troubles, gathers fourteen of the bravest
Geat warriors, and sets sail from his home in southern Sweden. The Geats
are greeted by the members of Hrothgar's court, and Beowulf boasts to the
king of his previous successes as a warrior, particularly his success in
fighting sea monsters. Hrothgar welcomes the arrival of the Geats, hoping
that Beowulf will live up to his reputation. During the banquet that follows
Beowulf's arrival, Unferth, a Danish thane, voices doubt about Beowulf's
past accomplishments, and Beowulf, in return, accuses Unferth of killing his
brothers. Before the night ends, Hrothgar promises Beowulf great treasures
if he meets with success against the monster. Grendel appears on the night
of the Geats' arrival at Heorot. Beowulf, true to his word, wrestles the
monster barehanded. He tears off the monster's arm at the shoulder, but
Grendel escapes, only to die soon afterward at the bottom of his snakeinfested mere.
The Danish warriors, who have fled the hall in fear, return singing
songs in praise of Beowulf's triumph. Hrothgar rewards Beowulf
with a great store of treasures. After another banquet, the warriors
of both the Geats and the Danes retire for the night. Unknown to
the warriors, however, Grendel's mother is plotting revenge. She
arrives at the hall when all the warriors are sleeping and carries off
Aeschere, Hrothgar's chief advisor along with her son's claw.
Beowulf offers to dive to the bottom of the lake, find the monster
and destroy her. He and his men follow the monster's tracks to the
cliff overlooking the lake where Grendel's mother lives. They see
Aeschere's bloody head sitting on the cliff. While preparing for
battle, Beowulf asks Hrothgar to protect his warriors, and to send
his treasures to his uncle, King Hygelac, if he doesn't return safely.
Before Beowulf goes into the sea, Unferth offers him his sword,
Hrunting. During the ensuing battle Grendel's mother carries
Beowulf to her underwater home. After a terrible fight, Beowulf kills
the monster with a magical sword, probably put there by the AlWeilder, that he finds on the wall of her home. He also finds
Grendel's dead body, cuts off the head, and returns to land, where
the Geat and Danish warriors are waiting expectantly. Beowulf has
now abolished the race of evil monsters.
The warriors return to Hrothgar's court, where the Danes and Geats
prepare a feast in celebration of the death of the monsters. Beowulf
bids farewell to Hrothgar and tells the old king that if the Danes
ever again need help he will gladly come to their assistance.
Hrothgar presents Beowulf with more treasures, and they embrace,
emotionally, like father and son. The Geats sail home. After
recounting the story of his battles with Grendel and Grendel's
mother, Beowulf tells King Hygelac about the feud between
Denmark and their enemies, the Heatho-bards. He describes the
proposed peace settlement, in which Hrothgar will give his daughter
Freawaru to Ingeld, king of the Heatho-bards, but predicts that the
peace will not last long. Hygelac rewards Beowulf for his bravery
with land, swords, and houses. The meeting between Hygelac and
Beowulf marks the end of the first part of the poem. In the next
part, Hygelac is dead, and Beowulf has been king of the Geats for
fifty years. A thief steals a jeweled cup from a sleeping dragon who
avenges his loss by flying through the night burning down houses,
including Beowulf's own hall and throne. Beowulf goes to the cave
where the dragon lives, vowing to destroy it single-handedly. He's
an old man now, and he is not as strong as he was when he fought
Grendel. During the battle Beowulf breaks his sword against the
dragon's side; the dragon, enraged, engulfs Beowulf in flames and
wounds him in the neck.
All of Beowulf's followers flee except Wiglaf, who rushes
through the flames to assist the aging warrior. Wiglaf
stabs the dragon with his sword, and Beowulf, in a final
act of courage, cuts the dragon in half with his knife. Yet
the damage is done. Beowulf realizes that he's dying,
that he has fought his last battle. He asks Wiglaf to bring
him the dragon's storehouse of treasures; seeing the
jewels and gold will make him feel that the effort has
been worthwhile. He instructs Wiglaf to build a tomb to
be known as "Beowulf's tower" on the edge of the sea.
After Beowulf dies, Wiglaf admonishes the troops who
deserted their leader when he was fighting against the
dragon. He tells them that they have been untrue to the
standards of bravery, courage, and loyalty that Beowulf
has taught. Wiglaf sends a messenger to a nearby camp
of Geat soldiers with instructions to report the outcome
of the battle. Wiglaf supervises the building of the
funeral pyre. In keeping with Beowulf's instructions, the
dragon's treasure is buried alongside Beowulf's ashes in
the tomb. The poem ends as it began -- with the funeral
of a great warrior.
Characters
Beowulf is the main hero of the poem, whose exploits in warfare and against evil
forces, rise to kingship, and then decline due to old age and death form the subject
of the poem. In the first part of the poem, we are given the exploits of Beowulf, as
he travels from Geatland to Scyld to come to the aid of the Swedish king Hrothgar,
who is troubled by the monstrosities of a dragon called Grendel. Beowulf kills not
only Grendel, but also his mother, and returns to the Geats richly rewarded by
Hrothgar.
Beowulf is the son of Ecgtheow, and was taken by Hrethel, the king of the Geats,
under his protection when he was seven years old. Beowulf served Hrethel, and his
two sons, Haethcyn and Hygelac and the latter's son Heardred respectively, until
finally after the latter's death, he succeeds as king of Geats, and rules for fifty years,
until his death at the hands of the Fire dragon.
Beowulf is described in the poem as being a man of extraordinary abilities: he has
the strength of thirty men, and an exceptional swimmer, both qualities that come to
his help in his battles with Grendel and Grendel's mother. He is not quickly roused to
temper, evidenced in his interactions with Unferth at Hrothgar's court, is intensely
loyal to his king Hygelac, is genuinely committed to the welfare of his people, is
virtuous and believes in Fate, as that which God has ordained for him.
Grendel
Grendel is the fifty-yard long monster, which has wreaked havoc in Hrothgar's
kingdom for twelve years. He is one of the descendants of Cain and lives with his
mother in the marshes and stalks his victims at night, when he raids the Hall of the
Danes, and kills and kidnaps their warriors. He is immune to any weapons made of
iron as he has cast a spell over them, and is thus killed by Beowulf in a hand-to-hand
combat. Grendel loses an arm in the fight, and escapes to the marshes where he
dies. Grendel is presented in the poem as literally evil incarnate roaming the world,
against which Beowulf is pitted as the defender of the good.
Grendel's Mother
After Grendel is killed by Beowulf, Grendel's mother returns to the Hall to take
revenge. She succeeds is killing one of Hrothgar's warriors, and escapes. She is
eventually sought out by Beowulf, and a fierce underwater fight ensues between
herself and Beowulf, where is killed. Grendel's mother is perhaps the most interesting
figure for while Grendel is pure evil incarnate, it is his mother who seems to be the
guardian of the underworld, for it is only in her death that the lake and marshy land
in which the monsters lived, is purged of evil. It is also interesting, that while
Grendel's mother is acknowledged to be weaker because of her sex, it is her fight
with Beowulf that is fiercer and forms a greater part of the poem, than the fight with
Grendel.
Hrothgar
Hrothgar, married to Wealhtheow, is the king of the Danes, and it is his kingdom in
which Grendel has created havoc. He accepts Beowulf's offer of help in combating
the monster, and richly rewards him for the task successfully accomplished. He dies
of old age, having ruled for fifty years. He genuinely cares for his people, and
believes in God and virtue above brute strength, evident in his injunction to Beowulf
at parting to be always mindful of God. Hrothgar presents the counterpoint as well as
the other face of Beowulf, as he is both the aged king, unable to save his kingdom
from ravage, and thus a contrast to the might of Beowulf, as well as the picture of
what Beowulf himself will become in a few years: defeated by age.
Wyglaf
Wyglaf is the son of Weohstan and a thane (warrior) of Beowulf when the latter is
king. He is the only one who stays behind when Beowulf is hurt by the fire dragon,
and fights alongside him to kill the dragon. He is the only one mindful of kinship ties
as well as grateful for the honors that Beowulf has bestowed on him and other
warriors. He serves as a reminder of an age of loyalty and bravery that is coming to
an end with the death of Beowulf.
Themes
There are several
main motifs, which
occur on a regular
intervals throughout
the poem:
- Christian/ Pagan
- Good and evil (Light
and dark)
- Men and monsters
- Treasure
Good and evil (light and dark)
Grendel's massacre of the Danes extends beyond his bloody hunger.
Grendel is mankind's enemy and the physical embodiment of evil, of
humanity gone wrong. He does not follow the codes of feudal society:
allegiance, honour, loyalty, and community, the core values of civilization
among the Danes.
"Grendel's hatred began,/...the monster relished his savage war/ On the
Danes, keeping the bloody feud/ Alive, seeking no peace, offering/ No
truce, accepting no settlement, no price/ In gold or land, and paying the
living/ For one crime only with another. No one/ Waited for reparation from
his plundering claws:/ That shadow of death hunted in the darkness,/
Stalked Hrothgar's warriors."
Light and darkness are closely associated throughout the poem,
symbolizing the forces of good and evil, heaven and hell. Human
civilization, in the form of heroic warriors, is often associated with light: the
halls are illuminated with rejoicing and treasure. Grendel's lair is dark and
grey, and he only hunts at night, in darkness.
"They have seen my strength for themselves,/ Have watched me rise from
the darkness of war,/ Dripping with my enemies' blood. I drove/ Five great
giants into chains, chased/ All of that race from the earth. I swam/ In the
blackness of night, hunting monsters/ Out of the ocean, and killing them
one/ By one; death was my errand and the fate/ They had earned. Now
Grendel and I are called/ Together, and I've come."
Men and monsters
Who is human, who is a monster, who has superhuman abilities? Where does the line
blur between monster/human? This is related to the lineage of Cain and Abel, and is
not directly related to good and evil. It regards physical strength and supernatural
ability/tendencies.
Grendel is considered a monster:
"Till the monster stirred, that demon, that fiend/Grendel who haunted the moors, the
wild/Marshes, and made his home in a hell./Not hell but hell on earth. He was
spawned in that slime/Of Cain, murderous creatures banished/ By God, punished
forever for the crime/ Of Abel's death." Beowulf is human but also has the strength,
"grip," of thirty men. He is also super-human, and is some ways, almost a monster,
but in a different sense than Grendel:
"They have seen my strength for themselves,/ Have watched me rise from the
darkness of war,/ Dripping with my enemies' blood. I drove/ Five great giants into
chains, chased/ All of that race from the earth. I swam/ In the blackness of night,
hunting monsters/ Out of the ocean, and killing them one/ By one; death was my
errand and the fate/ They had earned. Now Grendel and I are called/ Together, and
I've come."Beowulf's strength, his primal desire for blood and violence, and his tales
of killing do not seem that different to Grendel's massacres at Herot. Beowulf makes
himself the equal of Grendel, and presents this parallel by declaring they are 'called
together.' Beowulf's power in fighting monsters is considered supernatural, but
sometimes he needs the assistance of his sword or mail (he is still human and not
immortal).
Monsters, including the dragon, Grendel's mother, and Grendel, can only attack and
eat men in their mead-halls at night. Related to light and dark imagery, their power is
derived from evil, and functions in the dark. In contrast, all heroes and warriors leave
to fight the monsters in daylight, when the Lord reigns.
Christian/ Pagan
Beowulf is an essentially pagan poem. Its composition occurred at
the same time as England's conversion to Christianity. When Prince
Beo is born, it is "allowed by the grace of god/...Lord of all life,
Ruler/ Of glory". The poem combines direct references to the Old
Testament with pagan references, quite often:
"[R]ecalling/ The Almighty making of the earth, shaping/ These
beautiful plains marked off by oceans,/ Then proudly setting the sun
and moon/ To glow across the land and light it;/...made quick with
life, with each/ Of the nations who now move on its face."
The pagan concept of fate was called wyrd, and was a persistent
part of later Anglo-Saxon Christian poetry, which much like Beowulf,
combined the two opposing ideas. Beowulf's battle with nine seamonsters in his youth, refer both fate, or wyrd, and the Christian
name of God, as being responsible for assisting him. When he is
fighting with the first sea-monster, "fate let me/ Find its heart
[monster's] with my sword". Later, upon his arrival on the Finnish
coast:
"God's bright beacon/ Appeared in the east, the water lay still,/ And
at last I could see the land, wind-swept/ Cliff-walls to the coast.
Fate saves/ The living when they drive away death by themselves!"
Treasure
In 8th century feudal society, the possession of treasure, gold, famous
swords, and mail/helmets regulated loyalty, allegiance and protection.
Warriors who fought for a particular Lord, such as Shild, could be
guaranteed a certain amount of treasure and spoils from war, raids, and
different battles, in return for their service. The Lord with the most
treasure, bravery and fame would become King; the throne was then
passed down to younger generations of great warriors. Thus, Beo, Shild's
son, inherited the throne along with his father's wealth. The entire system
was based on a Germanic heroic code of honour, which designated bravery,
strength, wealth, and honour as desired values. A King was a "ring-giver,"
because gold often came in rings, also a symbol of loyalty or sacred vows.
The mark of success in battle, strength and prowess, is shining, beautiful
armour, silver mail and gold swords. The more brilliant their weapons were
thought to be, passed down from their forefathers and past battles, the
more honourable and noble the warriors were.
It is significant that Hrothgar's queen, Welthow, pours mead for each
warrior out of a jewelled cup belonging to Hrothgar's kingdom. Gold and
treasure such as this are the property of Hrothgar, and the act of pouring
wine from such a cup signifies the Danish warriors' and now the Geatish
warriors' allegiance to Hrothgar in battle. Welthow is described as a
"bracelet-wearing queen" which also relates directly to her role as a
peacemaker; much like treasure, women were often married off between
feuding tribes to make peace.
Authorship
The author of Beowulf is unknown. According to
the Norton Anthology of English literature, most
scholars believe that the epic was written by a
Christian poet, although Beowulf may be a
product of the poet’s knowledge of both
Christian beliefs and the ancient history of his
people.
Somewhat more complex view suggests that in
the long history of the poem’s transmission, a
pre-Christian heroic narrative has been
‘baptised’.
Language and verse form
Beowulf is seen as encomium- a song of praise for a
great king.
Old English poetry such as Beowulf is very different from
modern poetry. It was probably recited, for few people
at the time were able to read. Instead of pairs of lines
joined by rhyme, Anglo- Saxon poets typically used
alliteration- a technique in which the first half of the line
is linked to th second half through similarity in initial
sound:
Oft Scyld Scefing sceadena threatum
Old English poets also used kennings- poetic ways of
saying simple things. For example, a poet might call the
sea the ‘swan-road’.
Final comments
1.It has been suggested that the model of Beowulf is in
fact Virgil’s Aeneid, for there are various parallels with
the Latin poet.
2.The action seldom moves in a simple, straightforward
line, we are constantly shifted back and forth in time and
space.