Part 2: Imagery
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The other half of the same
coin?
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Cognitive Specific Imagery

Generally mirrors the modeling results –
imagery is better than nothing, not as
good as physical practice
• Imagery therefore could also be seen as
enhancing the idea, but would also require
physical practice for calibration
• Mixed schedules have been quite effective in
this regard
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Cognitive Specific Imagery

So, imagery, like modeling, sits at a
level of the system between ideas and
action
• How do these levels interact?
• Do images interact with declarative ideas,
words? And if so, how?
• Do we “think” about images in the same way
we think through a sentence?
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1
Patient H.M.

The split between declarative and
procedural memory
• Tower of Hanoi puzzle (try it yourself - see
http://mazeworks.com/hanoi/)
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3
Intro to H.M. on wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HM_(patient)
Modeling and Imagery

The ALI (action-language-imagination)
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model (Annett, 1996) 1
Retrieval of
information about
movements relies on
imagery as a way of
bridging the gap
between the two sides
of the system
Actionlanguage
bridge
Human Actions
Verbal instructions
Perceptual
processes
Perceptual
processes
Motor
Processes
Motor
Processes
Action
Speech
Modeling and Imagery

1
ALI model (Annett, 1996) captures...
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•
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•
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The potential separation of the verbal and motor memory systems –
the two descending pathways can be completed without contact
The potential use of declarative knowledge in guiding motor
learning, at the upper (executive) level
The possible use of no declarative knowledge in performing motor
skills (left-hand side)
The fact that the use of declarative knowledge is a “less direct”
route to learning
The benefits of using metaphor (something that conjures up images)
to enhance the bridge between the upper levels
The habit we have of performing the motor act in order to construct
declarative knowledge of it (tell me what you do to tie your
shoelace)
The fact that presenting information both verbally and via
demonstration can result in superior learning to either method alone
(enhanced bridge – enhanced recall (Hall et al. 1997))
Modeling and Imagery

This model, in effect, just adds some detail to our previous
model from the demonstration slides…now different types of
information have different entry points, but imagery is still at
the core of it all.
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Note that all this is
incomplete. You can add
all manner of findings. It’s
my light contention
though that they can all
be squeezed quite nicely
into this framework, and
that the framework helps
make sense of it all
Human Actions
Verbal instructions
Perceptual
processes
Perceptual
processes
Motor
Processes
Motor
Processes
Action
Speech
Verbal Instructions and Cues

Instructions
• Keep it simple (see previous slides)
• Use to direct attention to the effect of
movement, not the movement itself (Prinz,
1997)
• Be aware that verbally directing attention at
something that might be picked up
unconsciously might harm performance
(Green & Flowers, 1991)
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2
Verbal Instructions and Cues

Cues...recommendations
•
•
•
•
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Can be used along with a demo – as long as they
don’t interfere with the attention needed to pick
up coordination information
Can be used to draw attention to critical parts of a
skill (head-stand – ‘shoulders over knuckles’)
Can be used while performing (Cutton & Landin,
1994, using Gallwey’s recommendations)
Can even be used to help advanced players
They can be used to either direct attention or
prompt action
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Another study to consider...
Focus of attention
Internal Focus
• Wulf, McNevin, &
Shea (2001)
• A study designed to
examine the different
performance styles
promoted through
different verbal cues.
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2
External Focus
4.5
3
Arbitrary Units

3.5
2.5
1.5
MPF
RMSE
Reaction Time
Performance Measures
And a quote:

It would seem indeed that we fail of accuracy and
certainty in our attainment of the end whenever we are
preoccupied with much ideal consciousness of the
means. We walk a beam the better the less we think of
the position of our feet upon it. We pitch or catch, we
shoot or chop the better the less tactile and muscular
(the less resident), and the more exclusively optical, (the
more remote) our consciousness is. Keep your eye on the
place aimed at, and your hand will fetch it; think of your
hand, and you will very likely miss your aim.
• (James, 1890: 520)