Beverages
Coffea arabica
Coffee History
• It is thought that the energizing effect of the coffee
bean plant was first recognized in Yemen in
Arabia and the north east of Ethiopia and the
cultivation of coffee first expanded in the Arab
world. The earliest credible evidence of coffee
drinking appears in the middle of the fifteenth
century, in the Sufi monasteries of Yemen in
southern Arabia. From the Muslim world, coffee
spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, to
Indonesia, and to the Americas.
Coffee Berries (Beans)
Coffee Production
• An important export commodity, coffee was
the top agricultural export for twelve
countries in 2004, and it was the world's
seventh-largest legal agricultural export by
value in 2005 (based on value in dollars, not
in pounds produced).
Coffee Varieties
• Of the two main species grown, arabica coffee (from C.
arabica) is generally more highly regarded than robusta
coffee (from C. canephora); robusta tends to be bitter and
have less flavor but better body than arabica. For these
reasons, about three-quarters of coffee cultivated
worldwide is C. arabica. However, C. canephora is less
susceptible to disease than C. arabica and can be
cultivated in lower altitudes and warmer climates where C.
arabica will not thrive. Robusta coffee also contains about
40–50% more caffeine than arabica.
Regions of Coffee Cultivation
r = robusta production, a = arabica, m = mixture
Coffee Seedlings - Brazil
Shade Grown Coffee – Costa Rica
Coffee Beans
Drying the Beans
Roasting the Beans
Various Roasts
Coffee Roasts
• Depending on the color of the roasted beans
as perceived by the human eye, they will be
labeled as light, medium light, medium,
medium dark, dark, or very dark.
• Darker roasts are generally smoother,
because they have less fiber content and a
more sugary flavor. Lighter roasts have
more caffeine and a stronger flavor from
aromatic oils and acids otherwise destroyed
by longer roasting times
Science and Coffee Consumption
• Scientific studies have examined the relationship between
coffee consumption and an array of medical conditions.
Findings have been contradictory as to whether coffee has
any specific health benefits, and results are similarly
conflicting regarding the potentially harmful effects of
coffee consumption. Variations in findings, however, can
be at least partially resolved by considering the method of
preparation. Coffee prepared using paper filters removes
oily components called diterpenes are present in coffee:
kahweol and cafestol, both of which have been associated
with increased risk of coronary heart disease via elevation
of low density lipoproteins (LDL) levels in blood. Metal
filters, on the other hand, do not remove the oily
components of coffee.
Cacao – Theobroma cacao
Tlalcacahoatl
Aztec uses of Cacao
Woman making
chocolate drink –
from Codice Tudela
– 16th century
Florentine Codex – god
visiting Cacao eater
Theobroma cacao
Cacao leaves and seeds – Theobroma cacao
Aztecs recognized at least four
varieties of Cacao
• Cacahoaquiahuit – largest, bore the largest fruits,
most seeds.
• Mecacahoatl – medium height, fruits second
largest in size.
• Xochicacahoatl – smaller in height and with
smaller fruits with red seeds.
• Tlalcacahoatl – smallest of them all and with the
smallest fruits. It was thought to make the best
drink. The other varieties were prized for seeds
for currency
Chocolate
• The seeds of the cacao tree have an intense bitter taste, and
must be fermented to develop the flavor.
• After fermentation, the beans are dried, cleaned, and
roasted, and the shell is removed to produce cacao nibs.
The nibs are then ground to cocoa mass, pure chocolate in
rough form. Because this cocoa mass usually is liquefied
then molded with or without other ingredients, it is called
chocolate liquor. The liquor also may be processed into
two components: cocoa solids and cocoa butter.
Unsweetened baking chocolate (bitter chocolate) contains
primarily cocoa solids and cocoa butter in varying
proportions. Much of the chocolate consumed today is in
the form of sweet chocolate, combining cocoa solids,
cocoa butter or other fat, and sugar.
Hot Chocolate
Benefits of Chocolate
• Cocoa solids contain alkaloids such as theobromine and
phenethylamine, which have physiological effects on the
body. It has been linked to serotonin levels in the brain.
Some research has found that chocolate, eaten in
moderation, can lower blood pressure. Dark Chocolate has
recently been promoted for its health benefits, including a
substantial amount of antioxidants that reduce the
formation of free radicals (although this is unproven). The
presence of theobromine renders it toxic to some animals,
especially dogs and cats.
Psychoactive plants as a
communal experience
• Many psychoactive plants
have very subtle effects
and appear to facilitate
social interactions among
people - plants included in
this group include plants
that yield recreational
beverages such as beer,
wine, yerba mate, coffee,
chocolate, and tea
Piper methysticum – source of Kava
Kava Chemical Activity
• The active chemicals in kava are lactones
• The two most important ones are kavain and
dihydrokavain –
• As Polynesians moved east, they tended to
select plants rich in kavain and poor in
dihydrokavain
Samoan women prepare Kava for the
Kava ceremony
Different varieties of Kava
• There are 9 major groups of kava plant
clones - each differs in chemical activity
• A Samoan clone called “fellowship and
brotherhood” makes one feel very friendly
• Another called “the white pigeon” imparts a
sense of heightened perception, as though
one were flying over the rain forest like a
pigeon
Tamarind – Tamarindus indica
Tamarind History
• It is a tropical tree, native to tropical Africa, the tree grows
wild throughout the Sudan and was so long ago introduced
into and adopted in India that it has often been reported as
indigenous there also, and it was apparently from India that
it reached the Persians and the Arabs who called it "tamar
hindi" (Indian date, from the date-like appearance of the
dried pulp), giving rise to both its common and generic
names. Unfortunately, the specific name, "indica", also
perpetuates the illusion of Indian origin. The fruit was well
known to the ancient Egyptians and to the Greeks in the
4th Century B.C.
Tamarind Fruits
Tamarind Uses
• The fruit pulp is edible and popular. It is used as a
spice in both Asian and Latin American cuisines,
and is also an important ingredient in
Worcestershire sauce, HP Sauce and the
Jamaican-produced Pickapeppa Sauce. The hard
green pulp of a young fruit is very tart and acidic
and is most often used as a component of savory
dishes. The ripened fruit is sweeter, yet still
distinctively sour, and can be used in desserts and
sweetened drinks, or as a snack.
Tamarind based sauces
Tamarinido Drinks
Herbs and Spices
Herbs and Spices
• A spice is a dried seed, fruit, leaf, root,
bark, or vegetative substance used in
nutritionally insignificant quantities as a
food additive for the purpose of flavor,
color, or as a preservative that kills harmful
bacteria or prevents their growth.
• In the kitchen, spices are distinguished from
herbs, which are leafy, green plant parts
used for flavoring purposes.
History of Spice Use
• The earliest evidence of the use of spice by humans was
around 50,000 B.C. The spice trade developed throughout
the Middle East in around 2000 BC with cinnamon and
pepper. The Egyptians used herbs for embalming and their
need for exotic herbs helped stimulate world trade. In fact,
the word spice comes from the same root as species,
meaning kinds of goods. By 1000 BC China and India had
a medical system based upon herbs. Early uses were
connected with magic, medicine, religion, tradition, and
preservation.
More Spice History
• Spices were among the most luxurious products available
in Europe in the Middle Ages, the most common being
black pepper, cinnamon (and the cheaper alternative
cassia), cumin, nutmeg, ginger and cloves. They were all
imported from plantations in Asia and Africa, which made
them extremely expensive. From the 8th until the 15th
century, the Republic of Venice had the monopoly on spice
trade with the Middle East. The trade made the region
phenomenally rich. It has been estimated that around
1,000 tons of pepper and 1,000 tons of the other common
spices were imported into Western Europe each year
during the Late Middle Ages. The value of these goods
was the equivalent of a yearly supply of grain for 1.5
million people.
Spice Trade Routes
Dutch East India Company Ship –
Japanese Woodblock Print - 1782
Plants for Dyes and Decorations
Woad – Isatis tinctoria
Woad Dyes
• Woad produces a substance in its leaves
called isatan B which, when exposed to the
air, forms the blue compound indigo.
• This compound can easily be removed from
the leaves by boiling them in water and an
alkaline solution, a process used by home
dyers today to make indigo today
Woad Dye and Woad Dyed Wool
Woad Body Decoration
Source of Henna – Lawsonia inermis
Henna Dye
• Henna, Lawsonia inermis, produces a red-orange
dye molecule lawsone. This molecule has an
affinity for bonding with protein, and thus has
been used to dye skin, hair, fingernails, leather,
silk and wool.
• Henna body art is made by applying henna paste
to the skin: the lawsone in the paste migrates into
the outermost layer of the skin and makes a redbrown stain.
• Products sold as "black henna" or "neutral henna"
are not made from henna, but may be derived from
indigo (in the plant Indigofera tinctoria) or Cassia
obovata
Henna Preparation
• Dried ground, sifted henna leaves are easily
worked into a paste that can used to make intricate
body art.
• Commercially available henna powder is made by
drying the henna leaves and milling them to
powder, then the powder is sifted.
• This powder is mixed with lemon juice, strong tea,
or other mildly acidic liquids. Essential oils with
high levels of monoterpene alcohols such as tea
tree, eucalyptus, cajeput, or lavender will improve
skin staining characteristics.
Mehndi – traditional Indian bridal
henna art
Modern body art with Henna
Traditional tattoo on
resident of Nuka
Hiva- late 1700’s
Candlenut tree – Aleurites moluccana
Traditional Samoan Tattooing
• The pigments used in traditional Samoan
tattooing comes from the nuts of the
candlenut tree Aleurites moluccana
(Euphorbiaceae) - called lama in Samoan
• The seeds are burned to produce soot which
is collected on banana leaves and stored in
coconut shells
Candlenut seeds ready to be burned
to produce soot
Samoan Tattooing Technique
• Tattooing is done by grinding the soot with
a mortar and pestle
• A serrated comb of pig bone is used to
penetrate the skin, and a mallet pounds the
comb and pigment into the skin
• A towel of bark cloth is used to wipe away
the blood
Traditional Samoan tattoo process
as done today
Completed modern
version of traditional
Samoan tattoo