Imperialism to Cold War
Imperialism
irony: height of Europe's power, imperialism led to increased competition, rivalry, and war that would end
its dominance
New Imperialism
 grander scale
 frenzied competition
 technology makes possible--warfare, transport/communication, bureaucracy, canals
Motives (It’s a reference to Gilligan’s Island)
 Strategic (bases--Philippines, minerals--South Africa)
 Self-suffiency (not rely on other competitors)
 Missionary (Livingston, but then comes Stanley--on-the-make)
 Investment of surplus capital (crisis of overproduction, boom/bust)
 Nationalism (jingoism, yellow journalism, prestige--Italy, Germany)
 Need for New Markets (China)
 Outlet for surplus populations (Australia)
 White Man's Burden (Kipling, justification)
The Scramble
NOTE: Africa was tribal (destroy), Asia hierarchical (plug in)
Africa
90% by 1914
missionaries first, then have to protect
expand slave posts to interior
Leopold II and Belgian Congo (personal fiefdom)
Berlin Conference (1884) and Berlin Act (1885)
Fashoda
Asia
China
Opium Wars (1839-42) and Treaty of Nanking
extraterritoriality
sphere of influence and Open Door
Taiping and Boxer Rebellions
India, Japan
Conflicts
Boer War (1899-1902)
diamonds and gold
Cape to Cairo RR (Cecil Rhodes)
Moroccan Crises (1905, 1911)--Germany challenges France
fear of Germany
Anglo-French alliance
Sino-Japanese War (1894)
Russo-Japanese War (1905)
Impact
world economy, dep. on trade
theories of superiority and racism
maternal role of women (to breed sons), eugenics
environment--disease, tribal cultures destroyed
new contenders--Japan, U.S.
Critiques
Hobson (need more distribution at home)
Lenin--last phase of dying capitalism
European Balance of Power (BOP)
declining--Aust., Russia, Ottomans
threatening--Germany
fearful--France
World War I
impact:
rearrange BOP, alienation, discredit elites, econ. disruption, political/diplomatic crisis,
demography, 4 empires gone
Causes
alliances
Bismarck's diplomacy
Three Emperors' League (1873)
Reinsurance Treaty w/Russia
Dual Alliance, Triple Alliance
isolate France, prevent encirclement
aggressive Kaiser Wilhelm II
Anglo-French rapprochement, Russian-French, Anglo-Russian
Triple Entente (weaker members drag in stronger)
nationalism
arms race, military plans, mobilization
imperial rivalries
psychological--relief from crisis
Trigger
Balkan crises
1878 Congress of Berlin (indep. of Rom./Bulg/Serbia)
1908--Aust. annexes Bosnia, Russians back down
1912--Italy and Ottomans
1913--Serbia and Bulgaria, Aust. creates Albania
A-H situation and reformer Franz Ferd. assass.
"the blank check" and Russian mobilization
War Europe
Schieffen Plan
technology and killing
barbed wire, machine gun, poison gas, airplane, tanks, subs, trenches
Battle of Marne, Verdun, Somme
Eastern Front and Russian weakness (7M casualties by 1916)
Gallipoli and Middle East (Lawrence)
Turning Point
1917--Russia out, exhaustion, French strikes/mutinies
U.S. intervention
isolation (divided ethnically)
violations of neutrality (Lusitania, Sussex pledge)
unrestricted submarine warfare (little trade w/Germ.)
"over there"
AEF and Pershing, German's final offensive
Total War
mobilization
women (5M in G.B. by end of war)
bureaucracy expands (Rathenau in Germ.--state monopolies)
propaganda
rationing (sawdust bread in Germany)
censorship (Schenck case)
Treaty of Versailles
Fourteen Points and Wilson (idealist)
French goals (Clemenceau--"the tiger" realist
settlement
boundaries--A-L to Fr., Poland, E. Europe (problems)
war guilt--Article 231 and "stab in the back" (Kaiser gone)
reparations--settled later at $33 billion
demilitarization--100,000, no navy/air force, Rhineland, Saar
League of Nations--U.S. Senate rejects, Germ/Russ. not in
Russian Revolution/Soviet Development
theme: Russia's need to modernize but maintain autocratic government to prevent social chaos in vast,
diverse, pol. inexperienced nation
Background
need to reform--Peter the Great, Catherine, Alex. II
reactionaries--Nich II., Alex. III, Nich. II
industrialization
Count Witte--gold standard, heavy industry, still only in pockets
opposition by peasantry
Russification
Alex. II assass.--rev. groups bent on destruction, only way to operate
pol. groups--SRs, SDs (Bolsheviks/Mensheviks), Kadets
Rev. of 1905
Russo-Japanese War (strikes, pol. discontent)
Bloody Sunday and October Manifesto
Duma and Stolypin reforms
World War I
Russian weakness--casualties, econ. breakdown
govt. incompetence--Rasputin, Nich. II at front
Feb. 1917 Rev.--Prov. Govt (Lvov, Kerensky)
Revolution
organization is key--Bolsheviks
"peace, bread, land"; "all power to soviets!"
Petrograd soviet--dual govt.
mistakes/problems
July Days
Kornilov rebellion
continue war
Bolsh. Rev.--Nov. 1917
Trotsky and Lenin
redist. land, end war (Treaty of Brest-Litovsk--heavy losses)
Consolidation
annul elections
Red Terror
redist. land
Civil War (1918-22)--war communism, Western aid for Whites, famine
structure of government
parallelism of party and state
democratic centralism--Politburo and Central Committee
nationalities--USSR formed in 1922
Stalin
New Economic Policy
the man and rise to power--controlled party machinery, ruthless
killed opponents--Trotsky, Bukharin, Zinoviev
"socialism in one country"
Five-Year Plans and Gosplan (Stakhanov)
collectivization of agri. and kulaks
accomplishments and caveats
role of women--legal equality but sacrificed by state interests
Great Purges
Beria assassinated (1934)
show trials
International Communism
Comintern
alliances with parties across Europe
Crisis of Europe--Interwar
theme: democ. fight for survival w/economic breakdown, challenge by fascism & communism;
resentment of postwar settlement leads to conflict/lack of coop.
Postwar settlement
E. Europe
not unified internally/nationality problems
underdeveloped indust. base
little experience w/democ.
U.S.
withdraw from pol/dipl. after Versailles
only nation able to lead--refuses to
narrow pursuit of econ. interests
France
Maginot Line
E. European allies/G.B. and U.S. fail to guarantee
Germany--a stung bear, still strong (demographics)
weakness of Weimar Republic (Gustav Stresemann)
Economic Nationalism and Diplomacy
Treaty of Rappallo (1922)--Germany/Russia to avoid isolation
invasion of Ruhr (1923)
outcry against French
passive resistance and hyperinflation
econ. problems
reparations
drained German economy
caused currency fluctuations
created circular flow of capital (dep. on U.S.)
trade--needed to pay off reparations/debt, yet tariffs (esp. by U.S.)
low commodity prices
disrupted markets (colonies advance)
currencies--devalued
Locarno Pact (1925)--spirit of compromise at mid-decade
Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)--no political commitment
Fascism
ideology
glorification of state, leader, militarism
struggle among nations (based on race)
anti-democ., anti-comm., anti-modern
Italy--at end of WWI, Mussolini
Mussolini and March on Rome
consolidation of power
corporate state/deal w/ industrialists
Black Shirts/Squadristi
Matteoti incident
Concordat w/Church (Lateran Treaty)
Weimar
Hitler--Beer Hall putsch, Mein Kampf (anti-Semitism, Lebensraum)
breakdown by 1930
Cultural Experimentation
"Lost Generation"--alienation amid noise of fun
physics--Einstein and Heisenberg
functionalist architecture (Bauhaus)
dadaism
literature--James Joyce, Brecht (Threepenny Opera), Virginia Woolf
film, radio, jazz, promiscuity (Cabaret and Berlin)
Great Depression--stock market crash, bank failures, unemployment, tariffs
World War II
focus: caused by unresolved issues of WWI, belief in state power, econ. collapse, Hitler's policies; most
costly in history, technology
Totalitarianism (only 5 democ. of 40 nations)
Soviet Union--successful model of econ. development (appeal of Comm.)
Italy
"trains run on time"
stagnation, so invasion of Ethiopia in 1935 (weak League response)
Nazi Germany
legality strategy--Hitler. appointment by Pres. Hindenberg, Brownshirts
re-arm, recover, Lebensraum
autarky (prepare for war), corporate state
social/pol policies
Hitler Youth
women role
police state, censorship
manipulation of masses--rallies, prop.
racism--euthanasia, Nuremburg Laws, Kristallnacht
Democracies--ineffective response to Depression
Great Britain
National Government--off gold standard, tariffs
France--failed Popular Front of Leon Blum
malaise and Maginot mentality
Spain
trad. elements/Falange attack Republicans
Nationalists and Franco
becomes continental war (USSR v. fascism)
democracies too weak
Way to War
withdraw from League (1935)
remilitarize Rhineland (1936)
annex Austria (1938)
Sudetenland and Munich--appeasement
Prague (1939)--stiffen public opinion
Nazi-Soviet Pact and Poland (1939)
Course of War
Stage One--Nazi control
Poland, Norway, Denmark, Benelux, France (sitzkrieg)
turning point--Battle of Britain (RAF v. Luftwaffe, Churchill)
Stage Two--Hitler's mistakes
invasion of USSR (Stalingrad, Leningrad)
U.S. and Japan (Midway)
El Alamein
Stage Three--closing ring
D-Day
Russian advance in Great Patriotic War
island-hopping in Pacific
atomic bomb
Holocaust
stages: restriction of rights, expulsion/ghettoes, extermination
invasion of USSR
Wannsee Conf.--decision to use resources for killing of Jews
death camps and who knew
Wartime Conferences
Teheran (1943)
Yalta, Potsdam (1945)--trouble on the horizon
The Cold War
theme: Europe caught between superpowers recovers through unity; interests; social changes reflect
challenge of the war
Causes of Cold War
U.S. atomic policy (USSR gets in 1949)
Soviet need for security
ideological conflict
Areas of conflict
Yalta and Potsdam--what was agreed to
Germany
different plans/visions
currency reform and Western unif. of zones
Berlin blockade and airlift
Berlin Wall--1961
containment
Greece and Turkey, Korea--Truman Doctrine, NSC-68
E. Europe:
Poland and elections, Czech. coup in 1948
arms race
Cuban missile crisis (1963)---peaceful coexistence
decolonization
comp. models: British (India/Commonwealth), Dutch (Indonesia)
France--Indochina and Algeria
Africa by 1961
Reconstruction and Recovery
Europe in ruins (buildings, cities, transport, factories gone; DPs)
Marshall Plan (U.S. motives, USSR view and response)
economic miracle
new econ. theories--J.M Keynes
Beveridge report and British problems
European integration
European Coal and Steel Community (1951)--inner six
Treaty of Rome (1957)--EEC
1992 and difficulties
Postwar governments
Western Europe (first: coalitions, then breakdown)
Christian Democrats (Gaspari, Adenauer)
France and Fourth Republic, Fifth Republic
E. Europe (Stalinization model: heavy indust., collect. agri., repression)
recovery but benefit to USSR
Welfare State and Youth Culture
consumerism and U.S. influence
Western Europe
Germany more laissez-faire
old age, illness, unemployment, accident, etc.--security
pronatalism--France and G.B. policies toward women/family
E. Europe
provide basics but few consumer goods
youth culture and protest--sex and drugs and rock 'n roll
women's liberatoin--de Beauvoir and Frieden, birth control
protests of 1968--in U.S. also (Berkeley Free Speech in 1964)
motives--critique of consumer society,
Finding Autonomy
E. Europe--de-Stalin. (Hungary--1956, Czech.--1968, Poland--1956, 1980)
Yugoslavia
W. Europe (Gaullism--third force, force de frappe; Ostpolitik--Treaty of Moscow, Helsinki Accord