SWCHSMUN 2012
NATO Background Guide
Sir Winston Churchill HSMUN Conference
SWCHSMUN 2012
Table of Contents
Current Membership in NATO………………………………………………………………… Page 2
NATO History ………………………………………………………………………………………… Pages 2-3
NATO and the UN ………………………………………………………………………………….. Page 3
Committee Overview …………………………………………………………………………….. Pages 4-6
Topic 1: The Situation in Afghanistan …………………………………………………….. Pages 7-17
Topic 2: Role of NATO in non-NATO Member Conflicts …………………………… Pages 18-20
NATO Background Guide | SWCHSMUN 2012
Topic 3: Cyber Security……………………………………………………………………………. Pages 21-24
1
Current Membership in NATO:
Albania
Belgium
Bulgaria
Canada
Croatia
Czech Republic
Denmark
Estonia
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Iceland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Turkey
United Kingdom
United States
NATO History
The 12 members that came together in 1949 agreed to be underpinned to the ideal of
“collective security” - that an attack on one member was considered to be an attack on all. At
first, not much more than a political coalition, NATO was galvanized by the Korean War and an
internalized military structure was set up under the direction of two U.S. supreme
commanders. However, doubts lingered about the future of the organization, as certain
European states were reluctant to make of the alliance anything more than an anti-Soviet
reactionary coalition. They were weary of the U.S., the U.K. and a few other nations planning to
turn it into a global policeman. When doubts about even the efficacy of Soviet reaction arose in
1966, France decided to pull out its military from the alliance while only remaining as a political
ally.
At the same time, the Soviet-led response to NATO, the Warsaw Pact, was losing its prestige
and power as the USSR was slowly declining. After the fall of the Berlin wall in 1989 the alliance
entered in the Balkans as a regulatory force while also drawing past Warsaw Pact members in.
By 2001 NATO consisted of 26 members. Just this year it grew again to 28 with the entrance of
Albania and Croatia. With expanding membership has come the evolution of the role of NATO,
albeit not entirely smoothly as some members continue to argue against this. On February 28,
1994 NATO took its first ever military action by shooting down four Bosnian Serb aircraft that
were flying on a UN mandated no-fly zone. The operations in the Balkans served to legitimize
NATO Background Guide | SWCHSMUN 2012
From the ashes of WWII rose an ideological and regional dichotomy that threatened the already
weak international balance. The winners of the war had made strange bedfellows during the
armed conflict but were now poised to become hegemonic rivals. Led by the US and motivated
by the fear of Soviet expansion, the states of the west came together to create a 12 member
alliance. Thus was born the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).
2
NATO, as along with military action it now had also for the first time deployed a peacekeeping
force (SFOR) and awarded the NATO medal.
After the attacks of September 11th, 2001, the U.S. invoked Article 5 (collective defense) for the
first time ever and launched a full blown military offensive on Afghanistan. Soon it was clear
that the mission had to take peacekeeping, peace-building and state building dimensions too,
making it by far the most extensive and challenging NATO mission ever. This complicated
mission has long been a point of debate for NATO allies. On February 10, 2003 France and
Belgium vetoed the procedure of silent approval concerning the timing of protective measures
for Turkey in case of a possible war with Iraq. Germany did not use its veto power but said that
it backed the veto. On other issues, such as the taking over of the International Security
Assistance Force (ISAF) by NATO the alliance has shown greater cohesion.
NATO has changed in the last decade more rapidly and frequently than it ever has in its entire
history. It is important to be familiar with how these changes affect it. Some have argued that
the future of NATO is decided on the fields and mountains of Afghanistan. Consensus is
required for any decision to take effect and since certain nations such as the United Kingdom,
Spain and the United States have been attacked first hand they will be pushing for quick
solutions to terrorism problems. Other countries such as Canada, The Netherlands, Germany
and Turkey are involved in the hotbed of the conflict will undoubtedly ask the alliance for more
commitment towards achieving these goals.
The central article within which NATO operates, Article 5, points to the UN as the centre of the
international political system. Also, the North Atlantic Treaty itself stresses the commitment
NATO has to the principles and purpose of the UN charter. Article 51 of the UN charter on the
other hand, points to the right that sovereign nations have to foster relationships of collective
self-defense.
The two international organizations remain distinct entities to this day but their partnership is
becoming increasingly cohesive. It was not until 1992 that their relationship took on a
dimension that transcended the political and became something more tangible. The conflicts
that were harbouring in the Balkans were the catalyst for this change. Namely, the UN felt that
action through NATO was more possible because of the structural handicap that the Security
Council continues to face today. It has been suggested since then that western Security Council
members use NATO when the UN re-fuses to act. This has led to some tensions between NATO
and the UN at times, particularly when NATO interests clash with those of Russia and China.
However, in the end NATO is an alliance independent from the UN that chooses to work with it
towards peace-building goals.
NATO Background Guide | SWCHSMUN 2012
NATO and the UN
3
Committee Overview
What are Crisis Committees?
Simulation Overview
Parliamentary Procedure Specific to Crisis Committees
The same parliamentary procedures used for General Assemblies and Special Committees
apply to Crisis Committees as well. However, Crisis Committees (such as NATO) tend to be more
informal than other committees, that is, they require a limited use of parliamentary procedure.
They are often times more unstructured, and the flow of the committee is heavily dependent
on the discretion of the chair. The chair will make his/her procedural preferences clear at the
start of the first committee session. There may be a speaker’s list, yet most committees do
without one. There is often no official setting of the agenda, as debate tends to flow between
topics and is determined by the pertinent crisis at hand. In general, discussion occurs through
moderated caucuses in which the chair calls upon delegates to speak. Delegates motion for
moderated caucuses of a specified length and speaking time and on a specified topic. Many
issues may be discussed concurrently and crises introduced by the crisis staff may interrupt
discussion. Occasionally, unmoderated caucuses (motioned for by a delegate) are held in which
formal debate is suspended and delegates speak at will in groups of their choosing. In voting, a
motion for an unmoderated caucus takes precedence over a motion for a moderated caucus.
Often, motions are simply passed without voting if there are no competing motions. Action is
taken through directives, and there are generally no working papers or resolutions, unless the
chair so desires. Notes are used to communicate between delegates while the committee
proceeds. They are often used to work with delegates of similar viewpoints to coordinate
actions. Questions can also be sent to the chair (or crisis staff) in a note.
Directives and Notes
Directives
In order to carry out any action during committee, a directive must be sent by an individual, a
group of individuals, or the committee as a whole. If it is not on behalf of the entire committee,
then the delegate(s) can choose to make the directive private and it will not be revealed to the
whole committee. If the chair deems necessary, the directive may need to be introduced by a
requisite number of writers. To pass a directive on behalf of the whole committee, a simple
majority vote is required. The chair will hold a vote as each directive is introduced.
There are three types of directives – Action Orders, Communiqués, and Press Releases.
NATO Background Guide | SWCHSMUN 2012
Crisis Committees are specialized groups at SWCHSMUN that spend most of their time dealing
with real-time events that require immediate attention and action. These crises range from
terrorist attacks to natural disasters to corruption within a certain organization. Common
considerations of crisis committees include: understanding the crisis and its implications,
informing (or not informing) the press and public, undertaking immediate damage control,
reacting to the actions of other groups, and preventing future crises.
4
Action orders are used to direct troops, agencies, individuals, etc. to take an action that
is within the authority of the committee. An individual may only send an action order if it is
within his powers. A communiqué is used to communicate with foreign governments, or
individuals outside the committee. A press release is used to reveal information to the public.
Examples of Directives
Action Order
Direct Allied forces to invade Normandy, France on June 6th. Paratroopers shall be
dropped behind enemy lines on June 4th. Landings shall take place at Utah, Omaha,
Gold, Juno, and Sword beaches.
-The Allies
Communiqué
To the Emperor of Japan:
We demand an immediate, unconditional surrender by all Japanese forces within 48
hours, or we shall be forced to unleash heretofore unimaginable devastation upon your
cities.
- The Allies
Press Release
Yesterday, Dec. 7, 1941 - a date which will live in infamy - the United States of America was
suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan.
- Franklin D. Roosevelt
[Address Section on outside of Note]
To: Franklin D. Roosevelt
From: Winston Churchill
[Message on inside of Note]
We ask that you work with us to increase intelligence efforts directed against our so-called
allies, the Soviets, so that we will not be surprised by any actions they take after the war.
- Winston Churchill
NATO Background Guide | SWCHSMUN 2012
Examples of Notes
To a member of the same committee
5
To a member of another committee
[Address Section on outside of Note]
To: Leaders of Romania, Axis
From: Josef Stalin, Allies
[Message on inside of Note]
Seeing as the defeat of Nazi Germany is near, we would advise you to make a deal with the
Soviet Union now or we will show no mercy when the time for your defeat arrives.
- Josef Stalin
To chair or crisis staff
An Outline of Typical Crisis Committee Flow
 A moderated caucus takes place with delegates outlining their position.
 A delegate motions for a moderated caucus on a specified topic of a specified length with a
specified speaking time.
 Delegates discuss actions to take regarding that topic through the moderated caucus and
through notes.
 Delegates submit directives to the chair to take an action and motion to introduce the
directive.
 Discussion on the directives will proceed through the current moderated caucus and
amendments may be proposed and voted on.
 A delegate will motion to vote on a directive and the directive is either passed or rejected.
 A crisis will occur, oftentimes in the middle of debate. The crisis staff will introduce new
information or developments through news articles, videos, intelligence reports, etc.
 Discussion will shift informally or through a new moderated caucus to discuss this
development.
NATO Background Guide | SWCHSMUN 2012
[Address Section on outside of Note]
To: Chair/Crisis
From: Winston Churchill
[Message on inside of Note]
What is the current disposition of British forces in the Middle East?
- Winston Churchill
6
Economy of Afghanistan
GDP $14 billion
GDP per Capita $1,000
Unemployment rate 35%
Population below poverty line 36%
Employment allocation:
Agriculture: 78.6%
Industry: 5.7%
Services: 15.7%
Agricultural produce: opium, wheat, fruits, nuts; wool, mutton, sheepskins, lambskins
Industrial produce: small-scale textiles, soap, furniture, shoes, fertilizer, apparel, food products,
non-alcoholic beverages, mineral water, cement; hand woven carpets; natural gas, coal,
copper. 2
Despite the above-mentioned industrial and agricultural produce, the economy of Afghanistan
is heavily dependent on Opium production and foreign aid. In 2007 Opium was responsible for
half (50%) of the Gross Domestic Product of Afghanistan.3
Foreign aid also plays an important role in the economy of Afghanistan, although many
countries have not given as much as they have pledged. In many other cases as much as 90% of
the money is lost in administration or corruption expenses.5
The economy of Afghanistan is largely agricultural even when one excludes opium. This
presents a problem as most of the climate of Afghanistan is arid and unsuitable for growing.
Afghanistan has the opportunity to expand its economy into mining, as it has a large quantity of
natural resources.6 The types of minerals include large amounts of iron, copper, cobalt, gold
and lithium, a critical industrial mineral. Other deposits include barite, chromite, coal, lead,
natural gas, petroleum, salt, sulfur, talc, and zinc. Lastly, there are deposits of precious and
semi-precious stones such as: emerald, lapis lazuli, red garnet and ruby. The total worth of the
untapped minerals is estimated at almost 1 trillion USD.7 It is clear that for the economy of
Afghanistan to continue growing there needs to be a concrete plan first and foremost for
reducing violence and corruption, and, increasing jobs in the mining sector.
Women’s Rights
When the war in Afghanistan began in 2001 to destroy al-Qaeda, living in the security the
Taliban had provided for them, women in the country widely anticipated that the regime would
fall. Today signs of change are all around. Women have begun working and the police and army
have started accepting them. Article 83, of the Afghani constitution, now decrees that 25% of
the members of parliament must be female. Women were banned from the radio and
television was banned under the Taliban. However, today the status of women is advancing,
NATO Background Guide | SWCHSMUN 2012
Topic 1: The Situation in Afghanistan
Afghanistan has been occupied by the US military ever since 2001 after the September 11th
terrorist attacks by Al Qaeda. The group had been given safe haven in the country by the
Taliban, the extremist Islamic group that seized control of Afghanistan in 1996 after a civil war.
The 2001 invasion succeeded in dislodging Al Qaeda and removing the Taliban from power, but
not in eradicating either group.1 After nearly a decade of conflict, the war continues.
7
Religion
Afghanistan is a diverse country where one of the few commonalities is Islam. In late 1985, all
resistance groups working toward an Afghan constituency appealed to Afghans based on their
common Muslim identity. The term used for the resistance fighters, mujahidin, translates as
“those waging jihad.” Jihad is considered a duty of Muslims and it refers to the fight for the
prevalence of God’s will. According to Abul Kasem, author of several articles and books on
Islam, Islamic terrorism is motivated by the sources of Islam: Qur’anic verses, ahadith sira and
sharia that defend or promote attacks on non-Muslims or those who are not considered as
pious.10 Islamic terrorism is very prominent in Afghanistan and is carried out by the Al Qaeda.
Osama bin Laden, the founder of Al Qaeda, has an established aim of ending American military
presence in the Middle East and the Arabian Peninsula, overthrowing Arab regimes he
considers corrupt and insufficiently religious, ending American support for Israel, and returning
East Timor and Kashmir to rule by Muslims.11 Islam symbolizes a shared and potentially unifying
for Afghans. Islam’s potential to be a unifying factor lies partially in the core of Islam itself and
partially in the significance of Islam to Afghans.12 In addition, minorities of Hindus and Sikhs
(originally traders from India) and Jews have lived in the country for generations. 13
Military
The war in Afghanistan is being fought by nearly 100,000 American soldiers along with 47,000
troops from non-US NATO member countries. NATO believes that the war in Afghanistan is a
war all NATO members need to fight in and, thus, NATO members fully support the US in their
mission in Afghanistan. In addition to the 28 NATO allies, 15 non-NATO members have
NATO Background Guide | SWCHSMUN 2012
shown by how a female anchor recently interviewed a former Taliban leader on a national
broadcast. 8
The ongoing war in the country, however, constrains women’s freedoms almost as much as the
Taliban, as suggested by interviews with female members of Parliament, government officials,
activists, teachers and young girls around the country. Nonetheless, as talks of reconciliation
with the Taliban take place, women fear that the peace they long for will take away the rights
they have gained since the Taliban were overthrown. Women fear a Taliban return on domestic
and personal fronts. The prospect of a resurgence of the Taliban or other conservative groups
seems bleak to many women in Afghanistan. In Kandahar, Helmand and Zabul (unstable
southern provinces), girls’ schools are open in provincial capitals, but few, if any, are open in
outlying districts. There are six schools for girls in Zabul Province, four in the capital and two
outside, but few families send girls to school because of the war. In Baghlan Province, the
situation for women has become worse, as Ms. Zarifi, the Women’s Ministry representative has
suffered numerous assassination attempts and protests in opposing her work. By contrast,
most of Kapisa Province is peaceful. There is a mediation program in the capital to help women
and girls when they face domestic violence. In the predominantly ethnically Tajik north, there
are large lively schools for girls, where families even allow married girls to complete high
school. Women’s activists are growing apprehensive that they are being excluded out of
political decisions. At an international conference meant to highlight the country’s plans for the
future, but President Hamid Karzai said nothing about how women’s rights might be protected
in negotiations. 9
8
History of Afghanistan
Afghanistan is a mix of cultures from around the Indo-European plain of influence. The first
signs of urbanized civilization were seen as long ago as 3000 BCE, but the first signs of human
life can be traced as far back as 50000 BCE. Afghanistan’s written history can be traced back to
the Achaemenid Empire in 500 BCE. 16The tribes located in the middle-east influenced the
nationalities of many countries such as Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Iran, Pakistan, Iraq,
as well as Afghanistan. Alexander the Great first arrived in Afghanistan in 330 BCE, fighting and
conquering the local tribes. In a letter to his mother, Alexander himself commented on how
proud and “lion-like” the tribes in Afghanistan were. Alexander established many settlements
throughout the Middle East that influenced the culture with a Hellenistic feel. After the defeat
of Alexander and his loss of control over the region, the area was divided amongst many
empires including the Parthian Empire, the Kushan Empire, the Sassanid Empire, the Kidarites,
and the Ephthatlites. When the Arabs conquered most of Persia in 642 CE, they proceeded to
invade the area known today as Afghanistan. Though the purpose of Islam was to unify the
people, as Arab armies left the settlements, many members reverted to pagan rituals. By 1219
CE this empire became subjected to the Mongolian hordes of Genghis Khan. This wave of
invaders slaughtered a large fraction of the population and desecrated much of the fertile soil.
Over the next few centuries the area known as Afghanistan was largely separated and ruled by
different empires.17 The first real influence came in the 19th century. British concern over
Russian advances in Central Asia and growing influence in Persia culminated in two AngloAfghan wars and "The Siege of Herat" 1837–1838, in which the Persians, trying to retake
Afghanistan and throw out the British and Russians, sent armies into the country and fought
the British in the region surrounding the city of Herat. Over the next few decades the west
installed countless sympathetic regimes in Afghanistan and across the middle-east to incite
cooperation of the people in capitalistic endeavours. On April 27, 1978 the government of
Afghanistan was taken by the PDPA (communist faction in Afghanistan) after a violent coup.
The previous government leader and his family were assassinated. The new Afghan government
abolished religion and instituted equal rights for women. There was also a very poor land
reform program instituted that many Afghans did not understand. The communist government
executed many Afghans that did not fit with the government’s view of an ideal citizen. In
December of that year, the PDPA signed an agreement with the USSR to allow military
intervention if needed. The PDPA was not popular because of their dependence on the USSR.
The repression by the regime caused anarchy in many regions of Afghanistan. In 1979, the US
began funding the Mujahedeen forces to attempt further cause chaos in the area as well as to
destabilize the government. This was done through Pakistan’s intelligent agency. The Soviet
Union invaded Afghanistan shortly after chaos broke out with over 100000 troops backed by
NATO Background Guide | SWCHSMUN 2012
contributed troops to the U.S.-led coalition. US President Barack Obama announced a new
strategy intended to eradicate al Qaeda in Afghanistan and help the Afghan government
overpower the Taliban insurgency, while strengthening neighbouring Pakistan’s anti-terrorism
efforts. This strategy included increasing US troops in Afghanistan by 30,000 and starting to
withdraw forces by the summer of 2011. 14 NATO leaders have set the deadline for a halt to
combat operations in Afghanistan at the end of 2014, agreeing on an exit strategy to remove
the 138,000 international troops involved in the war.15
9
Terrorism
Emergence of Terrorism
When the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan to rescue the Communist-leaning government,
that was then under attack by Islamic rebels, a grueling decade of war followed. This led to the
collapse of the Soviet Union, and the end of the Cold War, the emergence of Islamic guerrilla
fighters who evolved into Al Qaeda and the Taliban and the Al Qaeda's terrorist attacks on Sept.
11, 2001, which drew the United States into its own wars in Afghanistan and Iraq that continue
today.
Afghanistan, a country of rugged terrain and harsh weather, is a group of tribes rather than a
unified nation, where people's loyalties lie more with regional and ethnic leaders than a
national government, making it difficult to rule and practically impossible to truly conquer.
Soviet tanks and troops were useless in the mountains and valleys and the only weapons that
the guerrillas could not combat were helicopters. Eventually, though, this air power met its
match, thanks in some measure to the U.S.A. America's new friends were the Islamic guerrillas
known as mujahedeen, or "holy warriors," battling the Soviets. The U.S. and its allies began
supplying the mujahedeen with Stinger missiles, shoulder-fired rockets that could hit their
targets from three miles away, which meant the rebels could shoot down aircraft before Soviet
pilots even knew they were targets. Finally, the Soviet Union gave up, pulling out the last of its
troops early in 1989.
Later in Afghanistan, chaos reigned. With the Soviets gone, the tribal bands of the mujahedeen
were battled for supremacy. From this anarchy emerged the Taliban, young men who, having
been educated in schools of fundamentalist Islam known as madrassas (talib means student in
Arabic), were determined not only to restore order, but to implement their radical Muslim code
of behavior. At first, many Afghans weary of conflict welcomed the Taliban, but as they became
more powerful, they became more repressive, forcing all Afghans to adhere to their
NATO Background Guide | SWCHSMUN 2012
another 100000 Afghan military personnel. Recent reports show that the US and Saudi Arabia
provided more than $40 billion to the Mujahedeen as well as advanced technology; the FIM-92
Stinger surface to air missile. The 10-year Soviet invasion killed over 600 000 Afghan civilians
some of which weren’t military personnel. Another 6 million fled to neighbouring countries
such as Iran and Pakistan. In 1989 the Soviet Union withdrew from the region, this was seen as
an ideological US victory in the oil-rich Persian Gulf. 18 Many of the insurgent factions later
integrated into future factions known today, such as the Taliban. The US’s help to the
insurgents would backfire after the attacks on the world trade center on 9/11. On September
11, 2001, the two World Trade Center towers in New York were attacked by a terrorist
organization. On that day, four planes were hijacked, with two being crashed into the World
Trade Center towers, while another one hit the Pentagon. The last flight crashed in a field on its
way to the White House. In the days after the 9/11 attacks, President George W. Bush vowed
revenge in a speech at Ground Zero when he declared that, “the people who knocked these
buildings down will hear all of us soon!”, thus initiating the invasion of Afghanistan. The United
States recognized Osama Bin Laden as the mastermind behind the attacks and began their
mission to find him. This war involved NATO, thus requiring many nations to support the
decision of the US, after an event that did not directly concern them. To this day, the campaign
has claimed many lives, insurgent and soldier alike, as well as an astronomical civilian toll.
10
Negotiations with the Taliban
The Afghanistan and USA governments have begun to embrace the concept of Afghan-led
reconciliation with the Taliban. In the Afghanistan-Pakistan review, there are talks of a political
process in Afghanistan and the region that takes advantage of the security progress in
Afghanistan.
The acceptance of reconciliation or negotiations with the Taliban is a major change in
Washington’s view, which has been developing over the past few months. Initiating strategic
engagement with the Taliban, of course, might be taken by the Taliban as signal of weakness on
the part of the international community. However, waiting to initiate the negotiation process
may also hurt the effort to stabilize Afghanistan. Various initiatives and political exchanges
between the Afghan government and the Taliban have been on and off for over a year. It is
unclear whether sufficient tactical gains have been achieved in southern Afghanistan to allow
for confidence in the reconciliation process.20
The Quetta Shura, the Afghan Taliban organization based in Pakistan, has begun to talk about a
comprehensive agreement that would include participation of some Taliban figures in the
government and the withdrawal of U.S. and NATO troops. Afghanistan President, Hamid Karzai
long has said he will talk to insurgents if they renounce violence, sever ties to terrorists and
embrace the Afghan constitution. Taliban leaders have made overtures to reconcile with the
Afghan government, while reconciling with Taliban leaders is being pursued at the highest
levels. The Afghan government set up a 70-member peace council, formalizing efforts to
reconcile with Taliban leaders and lure insurgent foot soldiers off the battlefield.21
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interpretation of sharia, or Islamic law. Public executions for trivial offenses were common.
Women and girls had no rights: no work, no school, no appearing in public without full body
coverings known as burkas. They could be stoned to death for adultery (being raped
constituted adultery), and shot for offenses as insignificant as wearing nail polish.
Osama bin Laden, a tall, intense, and deeply religious billionaire's son from Saudi Arabia, who
had come to Afghanistan to fight in the holy war against the Soviets, joined forces with the
Taliban. He became enraged at the U.S. (and the Saudi government) for stationing "infidel"
troops in the birthplace of Islam during the Persian Gulf War against Iraq in 1990 and 1991.
Working with a group of angry Islamic fundamentalists who became known as Al Qaeda, bin
Laden began plotting against the U.S. and the West. The most notorious terrorist attack
committed by the Al Qaeda was the airplane attacks on the World Trade Center and the
Pentagon on September 11, 2001, in which almost 3,000 people were killed by 19 suicide
hijackers. In response, President George W. Bush sent U.S. forces into Afghanistan, where Bin
Laden was based, in late 2001. Bin Laden escaped into the mountainous, uncontrolled tribal
regions on both sides of the border between Afghanistan and Pakistan, where U.S.
commanders believed he was hiding. 19 Of course, as we all know, Osama bin Laden was
eventually tracked down and killed by a U.S. Navy SEAL team in Abbottabad, Pakistan about 56
km from Islamabad, the country's capital. This operation has contributed to strained and
uneasy diplomatic relations between the United States and Pakistan.
11
NATO Background Guide | SWCHSMUN 2012
The Pakistan Problem
The relationship between Afghanistan, Pakistan and the Taliban is a complicated one, and one
in which sides and funding sources have changed dramatically since the Taliban was initially
established.
The roots of the Taliban can be first seen around the mid 1980’s in the group the Afghan
Mujahedeen. They were a group in Afghanistan that were fighting the Soviet invasion and had
substantial support from both Pakistani and the United States government in arms, equipment
and training.22 The Mujahedeen were eventually successful and in 1989, the Soviet forces
withdrew. After the Soviets withdrew, though, the Mujahedeen failed to make a government
and as a result the different groups within the Mujahedeen began fighting among themselves
and the Afghan civil war began.23
After some years of this fighting, another group emerged, almost out of nowhere. This group
was known as the Taliban whose members comprised partly of Islamic religious students
(Talibs) who were disgusted with the inability of the Mujahedeen group to maintain peace.24 In
its initial rise to power the Taliban showed the same discipline that its members were shown in
the Madrassa School systems, the rigid adherence to religion and order were a dramatic
contrast to the previous Mujahideen.25 As the Taliban gained momentum, their leader asked for
volunteers from Afghani refugee camps in Pakistan. In these camps also were the Madrassa
schools that were extensively supported by the Pakistani government. There schools provided a
major source of recruitment for the Taliban.26 Due to the fighting caused by both the
Mujahedeen and the Taliban the number of refugees leaving Afghanistan made some of the
largest refugee camps in the world in western Pakistan, in 2001 there were over 3.6 million
Afghanis in refugee camps in Pakistan. Most of the young people in these camps attend
Madrassa-style schools, a large power base for the Taliban and a reason for the continued
failure of western forces to stop the Taliban.27
Due to the continued pressure from international forces, it is becoming more and more difficult
for the Taliban to launch attacks from within Afghanistan. As a result the Taliban is occupying
more territory in western Pakistan where there are less government forces and some support
from individual militant organizations already within Pakistan.28 29 One of the militant
organizations is now an official branch of the Taliban TTP (Terik-i-Taliban Pakistan). In early
January 2009 the TTP and the Taliban in Afghanistan signed an agreement to help each other
combat the United States forces in Afghanistan. Pakistan, like the United States has a problem
that it helped create.30 The response from the Pakistani government has been ineffectual, most
likely because of a lack of resources.
There have been many proposed was to prevent the spread of the Taliban and to combat it, but
none of these strategies have been effective. This could probably be because most of the
strategies have been combat-based. The crucial point that the military planners forget is that
the Taliban flourishes on conflict and revenge. What can stop the Taliban is lack of support.
Invading gives the people plenty of anger that the Taliban can, and does, channel. A way to
decrease their support is to concentrate on the things that the citizens of Afghanistan do not
like about them. One very prominent factor is their refusal to allow females to attend school. In
many provinces, this has made the unpopular, yet many still support them because they believe
they have no other choice. For many of these people their only experience with the American
forces, as ‘liberators’ has been casual violence and mindless slaughter.
12
To combat successfully the Taliban, there must be better opportunities for the people of
Afghanistan, availability of schools for girls and stability. If the Taliban attempt to recapture
these areas they will face harsh resistance, not from outside forces but from the people that
want to protect their new way of life. The current strategies of ‘crushing’ the Taliban are
ineffective and raise the body count while decreasing the confidence of the Afghan people in
the foreign armies.
Rigged Elections
In the past the Afghan government suffered from heavy corruption. The perpetrators included
the local election staff, government officials, local warlords and power brokers. Afghanistan’s
most recent elections were held on August 20th, 2009. This was supposed to be a show of
democracy demonstrating Afghanistan’s choice for a prosperous future. The problem is these
elections ended up being rigged and suffer massive ghost balloting. A lot secret support was
given to (the now current president) Hamid Karzai. As long as seven weeks after voting, the
Electoral Complaints Commission (ECC) was still trying to separate fraudulent tallies from
legitimate ballots. They discovered at least 1.5 million of Hamid Karzai’s votes were fraudulent.
There were no organizations inspecting voting centers so collaboration between electoral
supervisors and government agents could have occurred. In response, a board called the
Afghanistan Independent Elections Commission of seven members (Appointed by the now
current president) was established.31
Infrastructure
Decades of war, harsh conditions and neglect have left Afghanistan's infrastructure in decay.
The lack of infrastructure has had a huge impact on Afghanistan's economy and government.
Though the lack of infrastructure has plagued Afghanistan for many years government backed,
independent groups have been improving infrastructure through the following ways:
NATO Background Guide | SWCHSMUN 2012
NATO’s Conundrum
NATO’s mission in Afghanistan has been to oppose the Taliban in their terrorist actions against
the government and people. Though the Taliban was routed or at least subdued in Afghanistan,
they continued their terrorist actions against military forces through guerrilla warfare. No
matter what tactics NATO’s coalition forces have implemented, the Taliban was able to survive
and continue their fight. Taliban tactics have caused a wave of terror to spread among the
population and army personnel due to countless suicide bombers, which have inflicted
significant damage to troop morale. Currently, what is referred to as “NATO’s conundrum”, is
the difficulty of the current situation. If NATO continues to fight with their current tactics, their
army’s morale will decrease and the mission will be bogged down. There continues to be many
unpredictable deaths from roadside bombs where there is no visible enemy. On the other hand,
if NATO decides to leave Afghanistan, the Taliban may regain their control and continue
terrorist actions. This would mean all the soldiers and civilians killed, and all the tax money
wasted on this war would be for naught. As time has passed many citizens in countries within
the NATO coalition have expressed their concern and pain at further deaths in their army’s
personnel.
13
Implications of Troop Withdrawal
NATO forces have been in Afghanistan for over a decade. Many citizens in countries throughout
NATO have become extremely fed up with the death toll, monetary cost and savagery of the
war. However, it seems like there is no end to the soldiers, coming home in body bags.
Recently, in the United States, President Barack Obama was elected because he pledging to
remove forces from Afghanistan and Iraq by 2011, roughly speaking. This means analyzing and
understanding the effects of a NATO withdrawal on the region. When NATO leaves Afghanistan,
there is the possibility of resurgence in Taliban activity. Despite a heavy military presence of
NATO in Afghanistan, the Taliban have continued their attacks with ferocity. One could easily
postulate on how these events would increase exponentially due to lack of any central military
force to protect the country. Another consequence of the United States leaving Afghanistan is
the message it would send the world; America will have failed at trying to sustain a campaign
like the one waged in Iraq. America is less likely to meddle in other similar situations because it
has experienced the outcomes. This could possibly give rise to new terrorist organizations with
nothing to fear. By leaving the Middle East the US would also send a message to their allies that
they do not want to be involved in regional politics, therefore having to change their foreign
policy with certain countries in the area.33 There have two major incidents in Afghanistan in
2012 that have called into question the presence of NATO and American troops in the country.
The first incident was the destruction of several copies of the Koran at the Bagram base in
NATO Background Guide | SWCHSMUN 2012
a) Increasing the supply of usable electricity
Many projects have been undertaken with the goal of supplying Afghans with a more
affordable and reliable source of electricity. This includes importing electricity from neighboring
Uzbekistan. As well as improving hydro-electric power as well as construction of the North East
Power System (NEPS) to help distribute electricity across the country." The U.S. and other
donor agencies achieved a major milestone in September 2009, when the Afghan Government
officially launched Da Afghanistan Breshna Sherkat (DABS), a new commercialized Afghan
electrical utility". Further work on improving usable energy is still required.
b) Increase and expanding supply of potable water
Currently on 23% of Afghan households have access to safe clean drinking water. The U.S.
government is also providing and improving facilities in over 1000 rural areas across
Afghanistan. USAID has designed and currently implements community-oriented education
programs to raise awareness about good hygiene practices that will improve health and reduce
illness. Further reforms are in progress to commercialize the water sector to allow capitalism to
take root as well as working on improving management of these projects.
c) Expand roads for more efficient transportation
The United States is currently constructing 1100km of roads to connect rural centers with urban
ones. Quality of roads affects economic conditions and communications throughout the
country. "USAID is working closely with the government and private sector to maintain 3,500
km of roads nationwide".
d) Construction of schools, hospitals and other medical facilities
Currently many new hospitals, schools, teacher-training facilities, high schools and universities
are being built. Other non-profit organizations also help to improve the infrastructure by
establishing and building schools and, teaching local workers how to perform medical tasks. 32
14
Afghanistan. The fallout of this incident was mass demonstrations and attacks on the base itself
and President Obama issuing an apology for the incident.
Another major incident on March 11, 2012 caught international attention as well, and that was
the case of U.S. Army staff sergeant Robert Bales, alleged perpetrator of the mass killing of 17
Afghan villagers in the Panjwai district of Kandahar Province. On March 23, 2012, Bales was
formally charged with seventeen counts of murder and six counts of assault and attempted
murder. He is currently being held in detention at the Midwest Joint Regional Correctional
Facility in Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. In response to the incident, US President Barack Obama
expressed deep sadness yesterday at a "tragic and shocking" shooting. "I offer my condolences
to the families and loved ones of
those who lost their lives, and to
the people of Afghanistan, who
have endured too much violence
and suffering," President Obama
said in a written statement.
U.S. Army Staff Sergeant Robert Bales (depicted above on the left)
NATO Background Guide | SWCHSMUN 2012
Afghan demonstrators shout anti-US slogans at the gate of Bagram airbase during a protest against Koran
desecration, February 21, 2012. Afghan protestors firing slingshots and petrol bombs besieged one of the largest
US-run military bases in Afghanistan, furious over reports that NATO had set fire to copies of the Koran. (Shah
Marai/AFP/Getty Images)
15
Another ongoing controversy that the Obama administration and NATO has had to deal with is
the use of air strikes in Afghanistan and the loss of civilian lives. Hundreds of civilians have lost
their lives in the US-led operations in various parts of Afghanistan over the past few months,
with Afghans becoming increasingly outraged at the seemingly endless number of the deadly
assaults. The United States launches airstrikes on Afghan residential locations, claiming to be
targeting militants. However, the main victims of the US-led offensives are civilians.
Afghanistan's President Hamid Karzai has warned that civilian casualties caused by NATO
airstrikes on May 8, 2012 could undermine the cooperation agreement he just signed with the
U.S. He talked to families of the latest victims Tuesday. Also May 8th, Taliban attacks in three
provinces killed 12 Afghans — seven police, four Education Ministry employees and a
bodyguard. The Taliban kill more civilians than foreign forces, but the deaths of citizens caught
in the crossfire of the decade-long war continue to be an irritant in President Hamid Karzai's
relationship with his international partners. Any NATO airstrike that leads to civilian deaths also
erodes the Afghan people's trust in foreign forces.
Questions to Consider
As a NATO delegate at SWCHSMUN 2012, you will have many questions to answer.
1. How should the war in Afghanistan proceed?
2. Is the US withdrawal conducive to the objectives NATO had when it set out to
Afghanistan and the ones it has while it continues to remain in Afghanistan? In addition,
what will happen in Afghanistan if the war continues or disintegrates?
1 “Afghanistan.” The New York Times. The New York Times Co., 6 Dec. 2010. Web. 9 Jan. 2011.
<http://topics.nytimes.com/ top/ news/ international/ countriesandterritories/ afghanistan/
index.html?scp=1-spot&sq=afghanistan&st=cse>.
2 "Afghanistan." CIA World FactBook. United States Government, n.d. Web. 23 Dec. 2010.
<https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ af.html>.
3 UNODC (2008-11-16). "Opium Amounts to Half of Afghanistan's GDP in 2007, Reports
UNODC"
4 United Nations International Drug Control Programme (UNDCP) (PDF). Annual Opium Poppy
Survey 2001.
5 "Ugly truth about foreign aid in Afghanistan." Global Research. N.p., 12 May 2009. Web. 23
Dec. 2010. < http://www.globalresearch.ca/ index.php?context=va&aid=13578>.
6 Siddiqu, Abdul Qadir. "Tenders out for Hajigak iron ore mine." Pajhwok. N.p., 12 June 2010.
Web. 23 Dec. 2010. <http://www.pajhwok.com/en/2010/06/12/ tenders-out-hajigak-iron-oremine>.
7 Risen, James. "U.S. Identifies Vast Mineral Riches in Afghanistan." The New York Times. N.p., 3
June 2010. Web. 23 Dec. 2010. <http://www.nytimes.com/
2010/06/14/world/asia/14minerals.html?_r=1>.
NATO Background Guide | SWCHSMUN 2012
References:
16
NATO Background Guide | SWCHSMUN 2012
8 Baker, Aryn. “Afghan Women and the Return of the Taliban.” Time 9 Aug. 2010: 20. Expanded
Academic ASAP. Web. 21 Nov. 2010.
<http://find.galegroup.com.ezproxy.torontopubliclibrary.ca/ gtx/
infomark.do?prodId=EAIM&userGroupName=tplmain_z&version=1.0&type=retrieve&docId=A2
32951914&searchType=AdvancedSearchForm>.
9 Rubbin, Alissa J. “Afghan Women Fear Loss of Modest Gains.” New York Times. New York
Times Co., 31 July 2010. Web. 21 Nov. 2010. <http://www.nytimes.com/ 2010/ 07/ 31/
world/asia/31women.html?_r=3&scp=1&sq=Afghan%20Women%20Fear%20the%20Loss%20of
%20Modest%20Gains&st=cse>.
10 Kasem, Abul. “The Left and Fitna.” Interview by Jamie Glazov. Assyrian News 4 Sept. 2008: n.
pag. Web. 22 Nov. 2010. <http://www.aina.org/ news/ 2008049171012.htm>.
11 Laden, Osama Bin. Declaration of War against the Americans Occupying the Land of the Two
Holy Places. London: Al Quds Al Arabi, Aug. 1996. N. pag. Public Broadcasting Service. Web. 22
Nov. 2010. <http://www.pbs.org/ newshour/ terrorism/ international/ fatwa_1996.html>.
12 “Afghanistan - Society.” Global Security. GlobalSecurity.org, 2010. Web. 22 Nov. 2010.
<http://www.globalsecurity.org/ military/ world/ afghanistan/ cs-society.htm>.
13 Kasem, Abul. “The Left and Fitna.” Interview by Jamie Glazov. Assyrian News 4 Sept. 2008: n.
pag. Web. 22 Nov. 2010. <http://www.aina.org/ news/ 2008049171012.htm>.
14 CNN. “U.S. Afghan Plan Spurs NATO Troop Pledge, Warnings.” Cable News Network 2 Dec.
2009: n. pag. Web. 22 Nov. 2010. <http://edition.cnn.com/ 2009/ POLITICS/ 12/ 01/
obama.world.reax/ index.html>.
15 Traynor, Ian. “Nato Maps out Afghanistan Withdrawal by 2014 at Lisbon Summit.” Guardian
20 Nov. 2010: n. pag. Web. 22 Nov. 2010. <http://www.guardian.co.uk/ world/ 2010/ nov/ 20/
nato-afghanistan-2014-withdrawal-lisbon?CMP=twt_fd>.
16 "The Afghans - Language and Literacy". United States: Center for Applied Linguistics (CAL).
June 30, 2002. Retrieved 2010-08-16.
17 Hiebert, Fredrik Talmage. Afghanistan: hidden treasures from the National Museum, Kabul.
National Geographic Society, 2008
18 Griffiths, John C. (1981). Afghanistan: a history of conflict. Carlton Books, 2001.
19 Paul, Lawrence M. “Afghanistan: How We Got There: Both the War in Afghanistan and
America’s Battle with Al Qaeda Spring Directly from the Soviet Union’s Invasion of Afghanistan
in 1979.” New York Times Upfront 8 Feb. 2010: 14. InfoTrac Student Edition. Web. 20 Dec. 2010.
<http://find.galegroup.com.ezproxy.torontopubliclibrary.ca/ gtx/
infomark.do?action=interpret&searchType=AdvancedSearchForm&type=retrieve&prodId=STO
M&docId=A218026909&version=1.0&userGroupName=tplmain_z&finalAuth=true>.
20 Felbab-Brown, Vanda. “Negotiating with the Taliban.” The New York Times. The New York
Times Co., 16 Dec. 2010. Web. 20 Dec. 2010. <http://www.nytimes.com/ roomfordebate/
2010/ 12/ 16/ obstacles-to-leaving-afghanistan/ negotiating-with-thetaliban?scp=3&sq=negotiations%20with%20taliban&st=cse>.
21 “Afghanistan-Taliban Peace Negotiations: High-Level Talks with Karzai Government.” The
Huffington Post. N.p., 10 May 2010. Web. 20 Dec. 2010. <http://www.huffingtonpost.com/
2010/ 10/ 05/ afghanistantaliban-peace-_n_751972.html>.
17
22 "Context of '1986-1992: CIA and British Recruit and Train Militants Worldwide to Help Fight
Afghan War.'" History Commons. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.historycommons.org/context.jsp?item=a86operationcyclone>.
23 Saikal, Amin. Modern Afghanistan: A History of Struggle and Survival (2006 1st ed.). I.B.
Tauris & Co Ltd., London New York. p. 352.
24 Griffin, Michael, Reaping the Whirlwind: Afghanistan, Al Qa’ida and the Holy War, Pluto
Press, England, 2001, 2003, p. 32
25 Nolan, Leigh. Afghanistan, Education, and the Formation of the Taliban. 2006. PDF file.
26 Marsden, Peter, The Taliban: War and Religion in Afghanistan, New York: Zed Books, 2002,
p. 124
27 M.J. Gohari, The Taliban Ascent to Power, Oxford University press, 2001, Oxford England, p.
31
28 Peshawar, Carlotta Gall. "Taliban spreads its influence into Pakistan." The Age. N.p., 17 Mar.
2007. Web. 28 Dec. 2010. <http://www.theage.com.au/news/ world/taliban-spreads-itsinfluence-into-pakistan/2007/03/16/ 1173722749137.html>.
29 Qadri, Mustafa. "Rough justice in Swat." Gaurdian.Co.Uk. N.p., 21 Mar. 2009. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. <http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2009/mar/20/ pakistan-afghanistan>.
30 Elias, Barbara, ed. "Pakistan: 'The Taliban's Godfather'?" National Security Archive. N.p., 14
Aug. 2007. Web. 23 Dec. 2010. <http://www.gwu.edu/
~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB227/index.htm#17>.
31 Galbraith, Peter W. "How the Afghanistan Presidential Election Was Rigged - TIME." Breaking
News, Analysis, Politics, Blogs, News Photos, Video, Tech Reviews - TIME.com. 19 Oct. 2009.
32 USAID "USAID/Afghanistan:: Infrastructure." 8 Sept. 2010.
NATO Background Guide | SWCHSMUN 2012
33 Katz, Mark N. "Implications of America Withdrawing from Iraq and Afghanistan." Middle East
Policy Council. 18 Nov. 2010.
18
Topic 2: Role of NATO in non-NATO Member Conflicts
The Powers of NATO
In the years following World War II, Europe seemed to once again be on the brink of war. The
Soviet Union occupied Eastern Europe (including the eastern half of Germany) and had begun
to install puppet communist regimes. The Western allies, including the US, the UK, and the rest
of Western Europe, feared that they too would fall victim to a Soviet invasion. In response to
the growing threat, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization was officially created on April 4,
1949, with the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty in Washington, DC. The original signatories
were the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Portugal, Luxembourg, Belgium, the
Netherlands, Canada, Norway and Denmark. The preamble of the treaty states that:
“The Parties to this Treaty reaffirm their faith in the purposes and principles of the Charter of
the United Nations and their desire to live in peace with all peoples and all governments. They
are determined to safeguard the freedom, common heritage and civilisation of their peoples,
founded on the principles of democracy, individual liberty and the rule of law. They seek to
promote stability and well-being in the North Atlantic area. They are resolved to unite their
efforts for collective defence and for the preservation of peace and security.”
“The Parties agree that an armed attack against one or more of them in Europe or North
America shall be considered an attack against them all and consequently they agree that, if
such an armed attack occurs, each of them, in exercise of the right of individual or collective
self-defence recognised by Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations, will assist the Party
or Parties so attacked by taking forthwith, individually and in concert with the other Parties,
such action as it deems necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore and maintain the
security of the North Atlantic area. Any such armed attack and all measures taken as a result
thereof shall immediately be reported to the Security Council. Such measures shall be
terminated when the Security Council has taken the measures necessary to restore and
maintain international peace and security.”
Though the Article calls on the members of the alliance to act if another member of the alliance
is attacked, it does not explicitly call on the other members to retaliate or to participate in any
military action against the attacking nation. NATO’s zone of operation is also limited to the land
above the Tropic of Cancer. For example, when Argentina invaded the British-held Falkland
Islands in 1982, NATO was not permitted to act despite a member state being attacked. It also
prevented action within the territory of a member state, therefore preventing NATO from
intervening in the Colonial Wars that swept through Africa and Asia in the 50s, 60s and 70s.
NATO Background Guide | SWCHSMUN 2012
The treaty called for the creation of the North Atlantic Council as well is composed of 14
Articles, of which Article V has been the most important. It states:
19
Command Structure
Each member of NATO has a permanent representative on the North Atlantic Council (NAC),
the senior governing body of the alliance. The NAC meets regularly, and often meets with highlevel diplomats, cabinet members and heads of state to discuss long-term policy. The NAC is
headed by the Secretary-General, who acts as the political leader of NATO.
There is also a Military Committee, which is composed of representatives from each member
state’s military. The MC is responsible for the conduct of NATO operations, and is headed by
the Chairman of the Military Committee.
The Supreme Allied Commander for Europe commands all NATO forces. By custom, the role of
Supreme Allied Commander is typically given to an American officer, while the Secretary
General is typically a European. This is done to ensure the balance of power between the
European members, the majority of NATO members, and the US, the largest contributor to
NATO.
Post-Cold War Operations
The Soviet Union, NATO’s primary adversary since the alliance was founded, was officially
dissolved on December 25th, 1991, thus ending the Cold War. Without the threat of communist
aggression towards Western Europe, NATO was forced to make several key structural changes.
Many former Warsaw Pact members joined the alliance, including East Germany, which united
with West Germany. As of 2009, 12 new members have joined NATO since the end of the Cold
War. Despite the expansion, NATO cut its budget significantly and dismantled many of its
military institutions.
Bosnia
However, when civil war broke out in the former Yugoslav republic of Bosnia, NATO was called
to action. Bosnian Serb forces had overrun the country and were systematically slaughtering
Bosnian Muslims. The most notorious attack against Bosnian Muslims took place in Srebrenica,
a UN safe-zone. The UN Peacekeepers in Srebrenica were unable to engage the invading Serb
forces, allowing them to overrun the town. The 30,000 women and children in the town were
forcibly removed by the Serb militia, while the men over the age of 16, over 8,000 people, were
executed.
NATO Background Guide | SWCHSMUN 2012
Role in the Cold War
Despite these limitations on the scope of the alliance, NATO members would continue to
expand and deepen their military ties throughout the Cold War. After the 1952 Lisbon
Conference, the Alliance was to have 96 divisions available in Europe, though this was later
reduced to 35 divisions. In the fall of 1957, there were over 250,000 men, 1,500 aircraft and
300 ships conducting exercises in Europe, the largest NATO exercise to date.
NATO eventually scaled back its troop deployment in favor of an expanded missile defense
system. This was intended both for security and to bring the Soviet Union to the negotiating
table. In 1979, the so-called Double Track Decision was implemented. NATO was to create an
arms reduction treaty with the Warsaw Pact, but warned that it would deploy nuclear weapons
to Western Europe if the negotiations fell through.
20
In the aftermath of the Srebrenica massacre, the UN passed Resolution 816, imposing a no-fly
zone in Bosnia, to be enforced by NATO. This was the first offensive military engagement in
NATO’s history. The operation involved 400 aircraft and 5,000 personnel under joint NATO
command, and lasted approximately two months.
In late 1995, in accordance with the Dayton Accords, NATO took command of the peacekeeping
operations in Bosnia from the UN. The Implementation Force (IFOR) included 50,000 troops
from the NATO nations as well as 17 non-NATO nations. IFOR was able to establish secure
zones and to force the opposing armies into zones of separation. By 1996, IFOR was replaced by
the Stabilization Force (SFOR), a much smaller force charged with maintaining Bosnia’s stability.
Kosovo
In 1998, NATO’s attention was once again turned to the Balkans. Since the conclusion of the
Bosnian War, ethnic Albanians in Kosovo had been harshly persecuted by the government of
the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (now Serbia). The Kosovars began an insurgency against the
government, and violence in the region continued to escalate. In 1998, the UN Security Council
passed Resolution 1199, demanding an immediate bilateral ceasefire, while contemplating the
use of force to protect the Kosovar population. The ceasefire ended in 1999, and the Serb
government appeared poised to
Security Council didn’t authorize the use of force in Kosovo, but the NATO decide to proceed
with a strategic bombing campaign against Serbia. NATO declared that:
NATO thus launched an eleven-week air campaign against Yugoslavia, eventually forcing the
withdrawal of Yugoslav forces from Kosovo and allowing the United Nations Mission in Kosovo
(UNMIK) to administer the area. Kosovo declared its independence in 2006, and the Republic of
Serbia is currently recognized by 86 nations and its secession was ruled to be legal by the ICJ in
2010.
Since NATO did not receive authorization from the UN Security Council to act in Kosovo, many
have ruled the intervention to be a violation of international law. Russia, a permanent member
of the UN Security Council and a historical ally of Serbia, strongly condemned the intervention,
calling it a “flagrant violation of national sovereignty.”
Within the NATO nations, many charged that as a defensive alliance, NATO had no right to act
in Kosovo, since it posed no direct threat to any members of the alliance. In the US, the
intervention was attacked as being both an imperialist venture and not serving US security
interests. It was even charged that the threat of genocide was concocted by the US government
to justify its aggression against Serbia.
NATO Background Guide | SWCHSMUN 2012
“Atrocities against the people of Kosovo by FRY military, police and paramilitary forces violate
international law. Those who are responsible for the systematic campaign of violence and
destruction against innocent Kosovar civilians and for the forced deportation of hundreds of
thousands of refugees will be held accountable for their actions. Those indicted must be
brought before the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) in The
Hague in accordance with international law and the relevant resolutions of the United Nations
Security Council. Allies reaffirm there can be no lasting peace without justice.”
21
The conduct of the intervention was also the subject of intense criticism.
Libya
NATO forces were once again mobilized in 2011, participating in the Libyan Civil War. In
February 2011, inspired by the recent revolutions in Tunisia, Egypt and other Arab states, the
Libyan population rose up against long-time dictator Muammar Gadaffi. Though the protests
were peaceful, they were quickly met by violent resistance from security forces loyal to Gadaffi.
Within weeks, the protests turned into an armed revolt. The rebels took control of several
towns in the eastern portion of the country, including Benghazi, the second largest city in Libya.
On February 27th, the National Transitional Council (NTC), led by former Justice Minister
Mustafa Abdul Jalil, was established in Benghazi and declared itself the sole legitimate
government of Libya. Though the rebel forces were able to gain a foothold in the East, the army
was exceptionally weak and disorganized. Many fighters had no formal military training, and
most were inadequately equipped to fight Gadaffi’s professional mercenary army. Government
forces faced stiff resistance from the rebel forces, but they were able to launch a new offensive
in early March and appeared poised to retake Benghazi. US and European leaders were quick to
condemn Gadaffi, who had been odds with the West for decades. The United Nations imposed
sanctions on the government and froze Gadaffi’s assets. Despite this and numerous
government and military defections, government troops appeared to be pushing rebel forces
back to Benghazi. On March 17th, fearing widespread atrocities by Gadaffi’s forces if they were
to retake the city, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 1973 (S/RES/1973), allowing NATO
to establish a no-fly zone in Libya’s airspace, as they had done in Kosovo. The no-fly zone was
also supported by the Arab League. To placate fears that the Libyan intervention would be a
repeat of the fiascos in Iraq and Afghanistan, US President Barack Obama declared that he
would not send ground troops to Libya under any circumstances. Furthermore, the intervention
would be led by French and British forces.
NATO Background Guide | SWCHSMUN 2012
Afghanistan and ISAF
Article V of the North Atlantic Treaty, which declared that an attack against one was an attack
against all, was invoked for the first time in 2001, after the September 11 attacks in New York
and Washington, DC. Al Qaeda, the perpetrators of the attacks were believed to be operating
out of Afghanistan, where the Taliban regime was providing them with aid and shelter. In
October 2001, NATO forces invaded Afghanistan and established the International Security
Assistance Force (ISAF) to rebuild the country and defeat the Taliban and al-Qaeda.
American, British and Australian troops led the initial invasion with UN authorization, though
they were later joined by forces from all NATO members as well as smaller contingents from
non-NATO members. Currently, there are approximately 130,000 foreign soldiers under ISAF
command in Afghanistan, including approximately 90,000 US soldiers.
In 2006, ISAF assumed control of all operations in Afghanistan. These missions include training
Afghan government soldiers, fighting the remnants of the Taliban regime and other insurgents,
stopping the trade and production of opium, and rebuilding the country’s infrastructure. So far,
approximately 2,700 coalition soldiers have been killed, including 1,800 Americans. Starting in
2012, NATO forces will begin to withdraw from Afghanistan, with the US military planning to
withdraw most of its forces by the summer of 2012.
22
NATO Background Guide | SWCHSMUN 2012
With NATO air support, the rebels were able to overrun the country, taking Tripoli, the capital
city in August. In October 2011, the rebels took Sirte, the final stronghold for Gadaffi’s forces.
Gadaffi himself was captured and executed by rebel soldiers. The NTC declared the war
officially over, and NATO forces withdrew on October 31st. The NATO intervention had lasted
for eight months and produced no combat casualties.
As with the intervention in Kosovo, the Libya mission was highly controversial. There were
reports of civilians dying in NATO airstrikes as well as atrocities committed by rebel forces. It
was feared that the no-fly zone would escalate into a ground war and that US forces would be
drawn into another Iraq-style war. Also as in Kosovo, many doubted the validity of the threat of
impending massacre, and thus felt that the intervention was unjustified. This was compounded
by the accusation that the action in Libya prevented NATO from intervening in concurrent
political crises, such as the Syrian uprising. As with Gaddaffi, Syrian dictator Bashar al-Assad had
long been at odds with Western governments, and had shown that he was willing to use force
to put down protests.
23
NATO Background Guide | SWCHSMUN 2012
Future of NATO Operations
The interventions in Kosovo and Libya were the subject of intense debate, both in the
international community as a whole and within NATO. The NATO charter states that the alliance
is purely defensive, leading many to question the legality of pre-emptive NATO actions. It has
been argued that the crises in Kosovo and Libya posed a threat to NATO’s collective security
interests, despite the fact that no member was directly threatened.
The larger contributors within NATO, most notably the US, the UK and France have significant
economic and military interests well beyond Europe, and are
thus more willing to intervene in humanitarian interventions. The smaller members, most
notably former Warsaw Pact nations like Poland and the Baltic states still have uneasy relations
with Russia and are thus more concerned with the security of their own borders. Poland has
been a particularly vocal critic of the foreign interventions, and was singled out by US Defense
Secretary Robert Gates for not contributing enough to the NATO effort. The Eastern European
members have argued that NATO’s primary area of interest is still Europe, and have thus sought
to integrate the alliance with the European Union, at the expense of the US and the larger
Western European members.
24
Topic 3: Cyber Security
With development and economic growth comes a rapid increase in the use of
advanced technologies, primarily a dependence on the internet and other information and
communication technologies. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) member states
exhibit a heavy reliance on computer systems for daily functions within their economic
zones and throughout national infrastructure systems. Due to a continually increasing
reliance on computer systems by governments and the private sector, there are also
more opportunities to disrupt governments or private corporations. Cyber security is a
relatively new concept at the international scale, but it is one that NATO is paying more
attention to. NATO first began discussion of cyber security initiatives at the 2002 Prague
Summit.2 Throughout the years following the Prague Summit NATO member states
reiterated the conclusions of the Prague Summit without much progress being made on
the issue.
In April and May of 2006, extensive and organized cyber attacks were carried
out against public and private institutions in Estonia. The government of Estonia was
severely handicapped, with the basic functions of government disrupted, because of these
attacks. This attack served as a wake-up call to member states, the potential damage
caused by cyber attacks was put on full display, not only to the defense community
around the world but to potential perpetrators of cyber attacks as well. The endemic
structural weaknesses in the cyber infrastructure of NATO member states became
even more evident.4 More recently, during the 2008 South Ossetia War, cyber attacks
were used during conventional warfare. Their successful use in addition to traditional
armaments opened the door for future developments in cyber warfare. Many future
conflicts will be decided on the digital battlefield.5
Due to these developments NATO has recognized the importance of maintaining
an advanced cyber defense system. In NATO’s Strategic Concept adopted at the 2010
Lisbon Summit, heavy emphasis is placed on the need for improved cyber security.
The Concept states that NATO member states shall “ensure that the Alliance is at the
front edge in assessing the security impact of emerging technologies, and that military
planning takes the potential threats into account.”6
Further developments in the coordination of cyber defense initiatives by NATO
agencies have greatly increased the real-time defense capabilities of NATO member
states. Compared to the attacks on Estonia, member states now have guidance and
real-time response capabilities during cyber attacks. The NATO Cyber Defense Management
Authority is at the center of cyber security activity in NATO. The CDMA coordinates
agencies and national governments in a “war-room” setting.7 The establishment of the
Cooperative Cyber Defense Centre of Excellence, located in Tallinn, Estonia, is an academic
NATO Background Guide | SWCHSMUN 2012
“Cyber attacks are becoming more frequent, more organized, and more costly in the
damage that they inflict on government administrations, businesses, economies and
potentially also transportation and supply networks and other critical infrastructure; they
can reach a threshold that threatens national and Euro-Atlantic prosperity, security and
stability.”1
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Things to consider:
 How does your country respond to cyber attacks?
 How have they responded in the past?
 Is your country prepared for cyber attacks?
 What could be done to make your country better prepared?
 What can NATO do for member states?
 Does your country agree with the adoption of international cyber law? What would such
laws look like?
Works Cited:
1 “Strategic Concept for the Defence and Security of the Members of the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization.” Active Engagement, Modern Defence. The Security Environment. p. 4.
2 “Defending against cyber attacks.” NATO – Topic: Defending against cyber attacks.
http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_49193.htm.
3 Hughes, Rex B. “NATO and Cyber Defense. Mission Accomplished?”
http://www.carlisle.army.mil/DIME/documents/NATO%20and%20Cyber%20Defence.pdf
NATO Background Guide | SWCHSMUN 2012
institution that will serve to guide NATO through both advances in technology and the ethics
involved in cyber warfare. The CCDCoE will assist NATO member states in maintaining the
technical edge it has in the cyber realm.8
Cooperation with non-member states and the private sector is crucial for cybersecurity within
NATO. The inclusion of international partners in the technological advances made must become
an integral part of NATO’s cyber security initiatives. While NATO has made significant progress
in achieving a relevant cyber security apparatus for member states, advances must still be
made. One area for improvement is the establishment of national state-sponsored Computer
Emergency Response Teams (CERTs). These numerous teams will be specifically trained for the
best tactics within their individual countries. These teams have seen success in both the United
States and in the United Kingdom. Their ability to assist both national governments and the
private sector with cyber attacks makes the CERTs essential components of cybersecurity
initiatives within NATO. The mandated establishment of CERTs for each NATO member state
should be explored.9
With cyber attacks increasing in both frequency and strength, it is only a matter of time for a
global legal framework to be adopted by the international community for cyber warfare.
Currently, international law does not address cyber warfare. Reasons for this include; global
powers such as China, the United States, Russia, and others desire a certain level of “strategic
ambiguity” while the world is still attempting to comprehend the scope of cyber warfare
related technological advances; as well as the fact that the majority of parliamentarians and
policy makers lack the technical understanding of cyber related issues.10 In the future, cyber
warfare will become more prevalent thus necessitating the adoption of international customary
law that lays the foundation for the rules of cyber warfare.
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4 Ibid.
5 “Strategic Concept for the Defence and Security of the Members of the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization.” Active Engagement, Modern Defence. The Security Environment. p. 5.
6 Hughes, Rex B. “NATO and Cyber Defense. Mission Accomplished?”
http://www.carlisle.army.mil/DIME/documents/NATO%20and%20Cyber%20Defence.pdf
7 Ibid.
8 “Mission and Vision.” CCD COE. http://www.ccdcoe.org/11.html.
9 Hughes, Rex B. “NATO and Cyber Defense. Mission Accomplished?”
http://www.carlisle.army.mil/DIME/documents/NATO%20and%20Cyber%20Defence.pdf
NATO Background Guide | SWCHSMUN 2012
10 Ibid.
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