Meiosis and
Genetic Variation
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Genome
• Genome: Complete complement of an
organism’s DNA.
– Includes genes (control traits) and noncoding DNA organized in chromosomes.
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Genes
• Eukaryotic DNA is
organized in chromosomes.
– Genes have specific places
on chromosomes.
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Heredity
• Heredity – way of
transferring genetic
information to
offspring
• Chromosome theory of
heredity:
chromosomes carry
genes.
• Gene – “unit of
heredity”.
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Reproduction
• Asexual
– Many single-celled organisms reproduce
by splitting, budding, parthenogenesis.
– Some multicellular organisms can
reproduce asexually, produce clones
(offspring genetically identical to parent).
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Sexual reproduction
• Fusion of two gametes to produce a
single zygote.
• Introduces greater genetic variation,
allows genetic recombination.
• With exception of self-fertilizing
organisms (e.g. some plants), zygote
has gametes from two different parents.
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Chromosomes
• Karyotype:
– ordered display of an individual’s
chromosomes.
– Collection of chromosomes from mitotic
cells.
– Staining can reveal visible band patterns,
gross anomalies.
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Karyotyping
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Homologues
• Chromosomes exist in homologous
pairs in diploid cells.
Exception: Sex chromosomes (X, Y).
Other chromosomes are known as autosomes,
they have homologues.
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In humans …
• 23 chromosomes donated by each parent
(total = 46 or 23 pairs).
• Gametes (sperm/ova):
– Contain 22 autosomes and 1 sex chromosome.
– Are haploid (haploid number “n” = 23 in humans).
• Fertilization/syngamy results in zygote with 2
haploid sets of chromosomes - now diploid.
– Diploid cell; 2n = 46. (n=23 in humans)
• Most cells in the body produced by mitosis.
• Only gametes are produced by meiosis.
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Chromosome numbers
All are even numbers –
diploid (2n) sets of
homologous
chromosomes!
Ploidy = number of
copies of each
chromosome.
Diploidy
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Meiosis – key differences from mitosis
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Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes by half.
Daughter cells differ from parent, and each other.
Meiosis involves two divisions, Mitosis only one.
Meiosis I involves:
– Synapsis – homologous chromosomes pair up.
Chiasmata form (crossing over of non-sister
chromatids).
– In Metaphase I, homologous pairs line up at
metaphase plate.
– In Anaphase I, sister chromatids do NOT separate.
– Overall, separation of homologous pairs of
chromosomes, rather than sister chromatids of
individual chromosome.
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Animation
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Meiosis 1
First division of meiosis
• Prophase 1: All pairs of replicated homologous
chromosomes attach at their centromeres in a process
called synapsis forming a tetradThese are called sister
chromatids. Crossing-over can occur during the latter
part of this stage.
• Metaphase 1: Homologous chromosomes align at the
equatorial plate.
• Anaphase 1: Homologous pairs separate with sister
chromatids remaining together.
• Telophase 1: Two daughter cells are formed with
each daughter containing only one chromosome of the
homologous pair.
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Meiosis II
Second division of meiosis: Gamete formation
• Prophase 2: DNA does not replicate.
• Metaphase 2: Chromosomes align at
the equatorial plate.
• Anaphase 2: Centromeres divide and
sister chromatids migrate separately to
each pole.
• Telophase 2: Cell division is complete.
Four haploid daughter cells are
obtained.
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Nondisjunction leads to abnormal
chromosome numbers in gametes
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Mitosis vs. meiosis
Meiosis KM
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Meiosis creates genetic variation
• During normal cell growth, mitosis produces
daughter cells identical to parent cell (2n
to 2n)
• Meiosis results in genetic variation by
shuffling of maternal and paternal
chromosomes and crossing over.
No daughter cells formed during meiosis
are genetically identical to either mother or
father
During sexual reproduction, fusion of the
unique haploid gametes produces truly
unique offspring.
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Independent assortment
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Independent assortment
Number of combinations: 2n
e.g. 2 chromosomes in haploid
2n = 4; n = 2
2n = 22 = 4 possible combinations
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In humans
e.g. 23 chromosomes in haploid
2n = 46; n = 23
2n = 223 = ~ 8 million possible combinations!
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Crossing over
Chiasmata – sites of crossing
over, occur in synapsis.
Exchange of genetic material
between non-sister chromatids.
Crossing over produces
recombinant chromosomes.
Meiosis KM
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Harlequin chromosomes
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Random fertilization
At least 8 million combinations from Mom,
and another 8 million from Dad …
>64 trillion combinations for a diploid
zygote!!!
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Meiosis & sexual life cycles
• Life cycle = sequence
of stages in organisms
reproductive history;
conception to
reproduction.
• Somatic cells = any
cell other than
gametes, most of the
cells in the body.
• Gametes produced by Generalized animal life cycle
meiosis.
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Sex is costly!
• Large amounts of energy required to find a
mate and do the mating: specialized
structures and behavior required
• Intimate contact provides route for infection
by parasites (AIDS, syphillis, etc.)
• Genetic costs: in sex, we pass on only half of
genes to offspring.
• Males are an expensive luxury - in most
species they contribute little to rearing
offspring.
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But …
• More genetic diversity: more potential for survival of
species when environmental conditions change.
– Shuffling of chromosomes in meiosis (independent
assortment)
– Crossing-over in meiosis
– Fertilization: combines genes from 2 separate individuals
• DNA back-up and repair.
– Asexual organisms don't have back-up copies of genes,
sexual organisms have 2 sets of chromosomes and one
can act as a back-up if the other is damaged.
– Sexual mechanisms, especially recombination, are used
to repair damaged DNA - the undamaged chromosome
acts as a template and eventually both chromosomes
end up with the correct gene.
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Zygote Formation and Early Development
• Zygote Formation
1. When the nuclei of the egg and sperm meet
(fertilization) a zygote is formed. This zygote has the full
complement of chromosomes needed by the offspring.
2. Zygote formation is also called recombination
because the genes from both parents recombine when
fertilization occurs.
3. A genetically unique egg and a genetically unique
sperm meet randomly leading to an offspring different from
each parent.
4. This variation in offspring plays a key
role in evolutionary change and species
survival.
5. The zygote divides by mitosis to form a
multicellular organism.
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Early Development
• Cells forming by mitotic division begin to specialize in their roles
and differentiate in physical appearance from each other. The
shape of the cell corresponds to the role of the cell.
Meiosis KM
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Shape Determines Function
• Specialized cells form tissues and then organs in a
multicellular organism.
• In an embryo, all the genetic information starts out the same.
Differentiation occurs when different genes are activated or
deactivated in certain cells, causing them to make only some of
the many proteins they are capable of synthesizing. This
activation of only certain genes results in the variety of cells in
our body.
RBCs carry O2
Meiosis KM
nerve cells- transmit impulses
WBCs fight disease
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The Environment Effects Gene
Expression
• Environmental conditions in the cell, from surrounding cells or
outside the organism, are responsible for affecting the activation
or deactivation of certain genes in certain organisms.
• When a gene is actively making a certain protein the gene is
expressed.
• Examples of environment affecting gene expressiona. Low temp. cause black hair growth in the
Himalayan rabbit.
b. Plants grown in the dark are white not green because
sunlight is needed to activate the gene which
codes for the synthesis of the protein pigment
chlorophyll.
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Vocabulary
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centriole
centromere:
crossing over:
gamete:
meiosis:
zygote:
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Study Questions
• 1. What happens as homologous
chromosomes pair up during prophase I
of meiosis?
• 2. How does metaphase of mitosis
differ from metaphase I of meiosis?
• 3. What is the sole purpose of
meiosis?
• 4. What specific activities, involving
DNA, occur during interphase prior to
both mitosis and meiosis?
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5. Compare mitosis and meiosis on the
following points:
a. number of daughter cells
produced.
b. the amount of DNA in the
daughter cells in contrast to the original
cell.
c. mechanism for introducing
genetic variation.
6. What is a zygote and how is it
formed?
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