Université Libanaise
Rectorat
Educational Psychology
Course Instructor: Dr Rita Zgheib
Rita.zgheib@gmail.com
1
BEHAVIORISM
1.1
3 HOURS : NOVEMBER 11, 2014
INTRODUCTION
Behaviorism
"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and
my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll
guarantee to take any one at random and train him to
become any type of specialist I might select -- doctor,
lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggarman and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants,
tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his
ancestors."
--John Watson, Behaviorism, 1930
. A School of Psychology.
. Behaviorism was established with the
publication of Watson's classic paper "Psychology
as the Behaviorist Views It" (1913).
. A theory of learning based upon the idea that
all behaviors are acquired through conditioning.
. Behaviorists believe that our responses to
environmental stimuli shape our behaviors.
. A person could potentially be trained to
perform any task, regardless of things like
genetic background, personality traits, and
internal thoughts (within the limits of their
physical capabilities); all it takes is the right
conditioning.
. Conditioning: a process in which a stimulus
that was previously neutral, as the sound of a
bell, comes to evoke a particular response, as
salivation, by being repeatedly paired with
another stimulus that normally evokes the
response, as the taste of food. (Pavlov)
. Conditioning occurs through interaction with
the environment
The History behind Behaviorism:
1. 1863 - Ivan Sechenov's Reflexes of the
Brain was published. Sechenov
Je peux former n’importe qui en n’importe
quoi
- Watson, 1930
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
1.2
introduced the concept of inhibitory
responses in the central nervous system.
1900 - Ivan Pavlov began studying the
salivary response and other reflexes.
1913 - John Watson's Psychology as a
Behaviorist Views It was published. The
article outlined many of the main points
of behaviorism.
1920 - Watson and assistant Rosalie
Rayner conducted the famous "Little
Albert" experiment.
1943 - Clark Hull's Principles of
Behavior was published.
1948 - B.F. Skinner published Walden
II in which he described a utopian
society founded upon behaviorist
principles.
1959 - Noam Chomsky published his
criticism of Skinner's behaviorism,
"Review of Verbal Behavior."
1971 - B.F. Skinner published his
book Beyond Freedom and Dignity, in
which he argued that free will is an
illusion.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONNING – WATSON
John Broadus Watson (1878 –1958) American psychologist who established the psychological
school of behaviorism.
Through his behaviorist approach, Watson conducted research on animal behavior, child
rearing, and advertising.
He conducted the controversial "Little Albert" experiment.
He was also editor of Psychological Review from 1910 to 1915.
He made Pavlov’s work known in the West
The Little Albert Experiment:
The aim of Watson and Rayner was to condition phobias into an emotionally stable child.
They chose "Albert" for this study (at the age of about nine months) from a hospital.
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As a preliminary to the experiment, Little Albert was given a battery of baseline emotional tests:
the infant was exposed, briefly and for the first time, to a white rabbit, a rat, a dog, a monkey,
masks (with and without hair), cotton, wool, burning newspapers, and other stimuli. During the
baseline, Little Albert showed no fear toward any of these items.
Albert was then placed on a mattress on a table in the middle of a room.
A white laboratory rat was placed near Albert and he was allowed to play with it.
At this point, the child showed no fear of the rat. He began to reach out to the rat as it roamed
around him.
In later trials, Watson and Rayner made a loud sound behind Albert's back by striking a
suspended steel bar with a hammer when the baby touched the rat.
Little Albert responded to the noise by crying and showing fear.
After several such pairings of the two stimuli, Albert was again presented with only the rat. Now,
however, he became very distressed as the rat appeared in the room.
He cried, turned away from the rat, and tried to move away. Apparently, the baby boy had
associated the white rat (originally a neutral stimulus, now a conditioned stimulus) with the loud
noise (an unconditioned stimulus) and was producing the fearful or emotional response of crying
(originally the unconditioned response to the noise, now the conditioned response to the rat).
This experiment led to the following progression of results: First, the introduction of a loud sound
(unconditioned
stimulus)
resulted
in
fear
(unconditioned
response)—a
natural
response. Secondly, the introduction of a rat (neutral stimulus) paired with the loud sound
(unconditioned stimulus) eventually resulted in fear (unconditioned response). Finally, the
successive introductions of only a rat (conditioned stimulus) resulted in fear (conditioned
response). Therefore, learning was demonstrated.
The experiment did not have a control subject.
Watson used the same kind of classical conditioning as Pavlov had used in his experiments with
dogs.
The experiment showed that Little Albert seemed to generalize his response to furry objects so
that when Watson sent a non-white rabbit into the room seventeen days after the original
experiment, Albert also became distressed. He showed similar reactions when presented with a
furry dog, a seal-skin coat, and even when Watson appeared in front of him wearing a Santa
Claus mask with white cotton balls as his beard.
Albert, however, did not fear everything with hair; and there were some confusing results when
pairing the noise with the rabbit and dog was done.
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FOOD FOR THOUGHT:
1. Ethicality of the experiment.
2. Parental consent
3. Generalization or not? Why was Albert not afraid of the rabbit or the dog?
Classical Conditioning in a nutshell
PHASE I
PHASE II
PHASE III
PRECONDITIONNING
CONDITIONNING
POSTCONDITIONNING
CS
S
Bell
R
Bell
S
Attention
Bell
CR
Salivation
S
S
R
Meat Powder Salivation
UCR
Salivation
UCS
Meat Powder
S= stimulus
CR= conditioned response
R= response
UCS= unconditioned stimulus
CS= conditioned stimulus
UCR= conditioned response
1.3
OPERANT CONDITIONNING – SKINNER
Burrhus Frederic (B. F.) Skinner (1904 – 1990)
American psychologist, behaviorist, author, inventor, and social philosopher.
He was the Edgar Pierce Professor of Psychology at Harvard University from 1958 until his
retirement in 1974.
Skinner invented the operant conditioning chamber, also known as the Skinner Box.
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He was a firm believer of the idea that human free will was actually an illusion and any human
action was the result of the consequences of that same action. If the consequences were bad, there
was a high chance that the action would not be repeated; however if the consequences were good,
the actions that led to it would be reinforced. He called this the principle of reinforcement.
He innovated his own philosophy of science called radical behaviorism, and founded his own
school of experimental research psychology—the experimental analysis of behavior, coining the
term operant conditioning. His analysis of human behavior culminated in his work Verbal
Behavior, as well as his philosophical manifesto Walden Two, both of which] have recently seen
enormous increase in interest experimentally and in applied settings
He is considered to be a pioneer of modern behaviorism along with John B. Watson and Ivan
Pavlov.
Skinner discovered and advanced the rate of response as a dependent variable in psychological
research.
In a June 2002 survey, Skinner was listed as the most influential psychologist of the 20th century.
He was a prolific author who published 21 books and 180 articles.
Operant conditioning is a behavioral learning model that attempts to explain learning through
the effects of both antecedents and consequences on behavior. Skinner based his work on that
of Thorndike’s Law of Effect.
Operant conditioning means roughly the changing of behavior by the use of reinforcement which
is given after the desired response. Skinner identified three types of responses or operant that
can follow behavior.
a.
b.
Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the
probability of a behavior being repeated.
Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior
c.
being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.
Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being
repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.
Positive Reinforcement (strengthens a behavior)
Skinner showed how positive reinforcement worked by placing a hungry rat in his Skinner box.
The box contained a lever in the side and as the rat moved about the box it would accidentally
knock the lever. Immediately after it did so, a food pellet would drop into a container next to the
lever. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box.
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The consequence of receiving food if they pressed the lever ensured that they would repeat the
action again and again.
Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by providing a consequence an individual finds
rewarding.
For example, if your teacher gives you USD 5 each time you complete your homework (i.e. a
reward) you are more likely to repeat this behavior in the future, thus strengthening the behavior
of completing your homework.
Negative Reinforcement (strengthens a behavior)
Skinner showed how negative reinforcement worked by placing a rat in his Skinner box and then
subjecting it to an unpleasant electric current which caused it some discomfort. As the rat moved
about the box it would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately after it did so, the electric
current would be switched off. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few
times of being put in the box. The consequence of escaping the electric current ensured that they
would repeat the action again and again.
The removal of an unpleasant reinforcer can also strengthen behavior. This is known as negative
reinforcement because it is the removal of an adverse stimulus which is ‘rewarding’ to the animal.
Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior because it stops or removes an unpleasant
experience.
For example, if you do not complete your homework you give your teacher USD 5. You will
complete your homework to avoid paying USD 5, thus strengthening the behavior of completing
your homework.
In fact Skinner even taught the rats to avoid the electric current by turning on a light just before the electric
current came on. The rats soon learned to press the lever when the light came on because they knew that
this would stop the electric current being switched on.
These two learned responses are known as Escape Learning and Avoidance Learning.
Punishment (weakens behavior)
Punishment is defined as the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or eliminate
a response rather than increase it.
Like reinforcement, punishment can work either by directly applying an unpleasant stimulus like
a shock after a response (positive punishment) or by removing a potentially rewarding stimulus
(negative punishment), for instance, deducting someone’s pocket money to punish undesirable
behavior.
Note: It is not always easy to distinguish between punishment and negative reinforcement.
But, YOU CAN! – You tube
In a nutshell:
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The mother wants a child to
get good grades
+ ADDING A STIMULUS
- REMOVING A STIMULUS
That would
REINFORCEMENT
STRENGTHEN
A
VOLUNTARY RESPONSE
In order to encourage child to get
good grades
Get to travel to Italy
PUNISHMENT
WEAKEN A VOLUNTARY
RESPONSE
In order to discourage a child
from getting bad grades
Spanking
No summer job
No Nintendo
Encourage a response to happen Suppress a response from
again
happening again
Token Economy
Token economy is a system in which targeted behaviors are reinforced with tokens (secondary
reinforcers) and are later exchanged for rewards (primary reinforcers).
Tokens can be in the form of fake money, buttons, poker chips, stickers, etc. While rewards can
range anywhere from snacks to privileges/activities.
Token economy has been found to be very effective in managing psychiatric patients. However,
the patients can become over reliant on the tokens, making it difficult for them once they leave
prisons, hospital etc.
Teachers use token economy at primary school by giving young children stickers to reward good
behavior.
Behavior Modification
Behavior modification is a set of therapies / techniques based on operant conditioning (Skinner,
1938, 1953). The main principle comprises changing environmental events that are related to a
person's behavior. For example, the reinforcement of desired behaviors and ignoring or
punishing undesired ones.
This is not as simple as it sounds — always reinforcing desired behavior, for example, is basically
bribery.
Skinner advocated that psychology is a science. His work was carefully carried out in a lab
under strict scientific conditions.
The Skinner box
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1.4
LEARNING THROUGH TRIAL AND ERROR – THORNDIKE
Edward Lee "Ted" Thorndike (1874 –1949)
American psychologist who spent nearly his entire career at Teachers College, Columbia
University.
His work on Comparative psychology and the learning process.
His theory of connectionism helped lay the scientific foundation for modern educational
psychology.
He also worked on solving industrial problems, such as employee exams and testing.
He was a member of the board of the Psychological Corporation and served as president of
the American Psychological Association in 1912.
Thorndike's theory of learning
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Learning is incremental.
Learning occurs automatically
All animals learn the same way
Law of effect- if an association is followed by a “satisfying state of affairs” it will be
strengthened and if it is followed by an “annoying state of affairs “it will be weakened.
The law of exercise:
a. Law of use- the more often an association is used the stronger it becomes.
b. Law of disuse- the longer an association is unused the weaker it becomes.
Law of recency- the most recent response is most likely to reoccur.
Multiple response- problem solving through trial and error. An animal will try multiple
responses if the first response does not lead to a specific state of affairs.
Set or attitude- animals are predisposed to act in a specific way.
Prepotency of elements- a subject can filter out irrelevant aspects of a problem and focus
and respond only to significant elements of a problem.
Response by analogy- responses from a related or similar context may be used in a new
context.
Identical elements theory of transfer- This theory states that the extent to which
information learned in one situation will transfer to another situation is determined by
the similarity between the two situations. The more similar the situations are, the greater
the amount of information that will transfer.
Associative shifting- it is possible to shift any response from occurring with one stimulus
to occurring with another stimulus. Associative shift maintains that a response is first
made to situation A, then to AB, and then finally to B, thus shifting a response from one
condition to another by associating it with that condition.
Law of readiness- a quality in responses and connections that results in readiness to
act. Responses may differ in their readiness. Eating has a higher degree of readiness than
vomiting, that weariness detracts from the readiness to play and increases the readiness
to sleep. Low or negative status in respect to readiness is called unreadiness. Behavior and
learning are influenced by the readiness or unreadiness of responses, as well as by their
strength.
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14. Identifiability- The identification or placement of a situation is a first response of the
nervous system, which can recognize it. Then connections may be made to one another or
to another response, and these connections depend upon the original identification.
15. Availability- The ease of getting a specific response. For example, it would be easier for a
person to learn to touch their nose or mouth than it would be for them to draw a line
5 inches long with their eyes closed.
Development of Law of Effect
Thorndike came to conclude that reward is a much more effective motivator than punishment.
He also emphasized that the satisfaction must come immediately after the success, or the lesson
would not sink in.
Trial and Error
The Puzzle Box Experiment
Thorndike's Experiment on cat in the puzzle is widely known and often quoted in psychology of
learning. The experimental set up was very simple. A hungry cat was confined in a puzzle box
and outside the box a dish of food was kept. The cat, in the box had to pull a string to come out
of the box. The cat in the box made several random movement of jumping, dashing and running
to get out of the box. The cat at last succeeded in pulling the string. The door of the puzzle box
opened, the cat came out and ate the food. Thorndike immediately put the cat back in the box for
a second trial.
Features of Trial and Error Learning
1. Learning by trial and error is a gradual process.
2. For learning to occur, the learner must be definitely motivated.
3. The learner makes random and variable responses.
4. Some responses do not lead to the goal (annoying responses)
5. Other responses lead to the goal. (satisfying responses)
6. With the increase in number of trials the annoying responses will tend to be eliminated and
the satisfying responses will be strengthened and repeated.
7. The time taken to perform the task (to repeat the satisfying response) decreases with
successive trials.
The experiment sums up the following in the process of learning:
1. Drive : In the present experiment, drive was hunger and was intensified with the sight of
food. (motivation)
2. Goal : To get the food by getting out of the box.
3. Block: The cat was confined in the box with a closed door.
4. Random Movement: The cat, persistently, tried to get out of the box.
5. Chance of Success: As a result of this striving and random movement the cat, by chance,
succeeded in opening the door.
6. Selection (of proper movement): Gradually the cat recognized the correct manipulation of
latch.
7. Fixation: At last, the cat learned the proper way of opening the door by eliminating all the
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incorrect responses and fixing the only right responses.
Through the experiment, Thorndike explains that learning is nothing but the stamping in of
correct responses and stamping out of incorrect responses through trial and error.
1.5
BEHAVIORISM – LEARNING PRINCIPLES
1. Learning is measurable and observable
2. Learning complicated behaviors is gradual and progressive
3. Learning results from the effects of stimuli and responses
1.6
CRITIQUE
1. Reinforcers in the classroom:
a. Techniques for controlling students.
b. Ineffective
c. May decrease students’ intrinsic motivation
2. Behavioral instruction techniques:
a. Take a part-to-whole approach
b. Teacher directed learning
c. Focus on isolated skill learning
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