‫محورهای بحث‬
‫‪ .1‬داروین‪ ،‬منشا گونه ها‪ ،‬و انتخاب طبیعی‬
‫‪ .2‬خدا باوری‪ ،‬و تکامل داروینی‪ ،‬از سازگارگرایی تا ضد سازگارگرایی‬
‫‪ .3‬آیا فرآیند انتخاب طبیعی در تکامل داروینی (عامل غیرهوشمند) میتواند از سوی خداوند‬
‫(فاعل هوشمند) طراحی و هدایت شود؟‬
‫ و داروینیسم‬،‫ منشا انواع‬،‫ داروین‬.1
Darwin, (1809 –1882 ), The Origin of Species:
1. Lamarck’s (1744–1829) Transmutation
2. Thomas Malthus’ (1766–1834)
Principle of Population
3. Herbert Spencer’s (1820–1903)
The Survival of the Fittest
4. Charles Lyell’s (1797 – 1875) Principles
of Geography
5. Darwin’s Voyage From 1831-1836
6. Alfred Wallace’s (1823 –1913) Letter in
18 June 1858
The Origin of Species
 Six British Editions: 1859, 1860, 1861, 1866,
1869,1872.
 The Main Core:
I will here give a brief sketch of the progress of opinion
on the Origin of Species. Until recently the great
majority of naturalists believed that species were
immutable productions, and had been separately
created. This view has been ably maintained by many
authors. Some few naturalists, on the other hand, have
believed that species undergo modification, and that
the existing forms of life are the descendants by true
generation of pre-existing forms.
( The Origin of Species, 6th edition, xii.)
Darwin's Five Major Theories of Evolution
(Mayr, 2002 )
1. The non constancy of species (the basic theory of evolution)
2. The descent of all organisms from common ancestors
3. The gradualness of evolution (no saltation, no
discontinuities)
4. The multiplication of species (the origin of diversity)
5. Natural selection
A Two Part Theory (Sober, 2009 )
1. The Tree of Life (The Theory of Evolution)
2. Natural Selection (The Mechanism)
Two Significant Elements:
1. Common Descent (The Theory of Evolution)
2. Natural Selection (The Mechanism) Waters,
 Evolution:
 The idea that biological life on Earth developed from simple
forms to more complex ones.(tree of life)
 A major development in evolution, usually one species
changing into another species (Transmutation), or evolution of
an organism from a common ancestor (macroevolution). and
changes or mutations in a species that do not result in
transmutation. The result of these changes or adaptations may
be the formation of a new variety of the species
(microevolution).
 Evidences:
 The Fossil Record, Geographic Distribution of Living Things,
Homologous Body Structures, Similarities in Early Development
 The Fossil Record-Layer show change
 Geographic.
 Geographic Distribution of Living
Things-similar environments have similar
types of organisms
 Homologous Structures-structures that
have different mature forms in different
organisms, but develop from the same
embryonic tissue
 Similarities in Early Development
‫نمودار منشا انواع داروین‬
fffffeeerrerewwew
Gregory, Ryan, 2009
Mayr, Ernest, (1904 – 2005)
 Evolution is not merely an idea, a theory, or a concept, but
is the name of a process in nature, the occurrence of which
can be documented by mountains of evidence that nobody
has been able to refute. It is now actually misleading to refer
to evolution as a theory, considering the massive evidence
that has been discovered over the last 140 years
documenting its existence. Evolution is no longer a
theory, it is simply a fact (Mayr, 2002, 319).
Natural Selection
I have called this principle, by which each slight
variation, if useful, preserved, by the term of Natural
Selection, in order to mark its relation to man’s power of
selection. (1859, 61)
can we doubt (remembering that many more individuals
are born than can possibly survive) that individuals having
any advantage, however slight, over others, would have
the best chance of surviving and of procreating their kind?
On the other hand, we may feel sure that any variation in
the least degree injurious would be rigidly destroyed. This
preservation of favorable variations and the rejection
of injurious variations, I call Natural Selection. (1859,
.80–81, 83–84)
Evidence: Artificial selection and Natural Selection
Natural Selection
It may be said that natural selection is daily and hourly scrutinizing,
throughout the world, every variation, even the slightest; rejecting that
which is bad, preserving and adding up all that is good; silently and
insensibly working, whenever and wherever opportunity offers, at the
improvement of each organic being in relation to its organic and inorganic
conditions of life. We see nothing of these slow changes in progress,
until the hand of time has marked the long lapse of ages, and then
so imperfect is our view into long past geological ages, that we only
see that the forms of life are now different from what they formerly
were.
I am well aware that this doctrine of natural selection, exemplified in the
above imaginary instances, is open to the same objections which were at
first urged against Sir Charles Lyell’s noble views on ‘the modern
changes of the earth, as illustrative of geology.(1859, 108 -109).
Unconscious Natural Selection
Over all these causes of change, the accumulative action of
selection, whether applied methodically and quickly, or
unconsciously and slowly, but more efficiently, seems to have been
the predominant power.(1859, 31)
As man can produce, and certainly has produced, a great result by his
methodical and unconscious means of selection, what may not natural
selection effect? Man can act only on external and visible characters:
Nature, if I may be allowed to personify the natural preservation or
survival of the fittest, cares nothing for appearances, except in so
far as they are useful to any being. She can act on every internal
organ, on every shade of constitutional difference, on the whole
machinery of life.(1859, 85)
Unconscious Natural Selection
By this process long-continued, which exactly corresponds with what I have
called unconscious selection by man, combined, no doubt, in a most
important manner with the inherited effects of the increased use of parts, it
seems to me almost certain that an ordinary hoofed quadruped might be
converted into a giraffe.(1859, 209).
The comparison would be in every way fairer with the effects which follow
from unconscious selection, that is, the preservation of the most
useful or beautiful animals, with no intention of modifying the breed;
but by this process of unconscious selection, various breeds have been
sensibly changed in the course of two or three centuries.(1859, 309)
The Power of Natural Selection
Let an architect be compelled to build an edifice with uncut
stones, fallen from a precipice. The shape of each fragment
may be called accidental; yet the shape of each has been
determined by the force of gravity, the nature of the rock, and
the slope of the precipice, -- events and circumstances all of
which depend on natural laws; but there is no relation
between these laws and the purpose for which each fragment
is used by the builder. In the same manner the variations of
each creature are determined by fixed and immutable
laws; but these bear no relation to the living structure
which is slowly built up through the power of natural
selection... The Variation of Animals and Plants Under
Domestication, Darwin (1868, p. 236).
Natural Selection
 Although I am fully convinced of the truth of the views given in this volume
under the form of an abstract, I by no means expect to convince
experienced naturalists whose minds are stocked with a multitude of facts all
viewed, during a long course of years, from a point of view directly opposite
to mine. It is so easy to hide our ignorance under such expressions as
the ‘plan of creation,’’ ‘‘unity of design,’’ (1859, 480–482)
Natural Laws
 It has been said that I speak of natural selection as an active power or
Deity; but who objects to an author speaking of the attraction of gravity as
ruling the movements of the planets? Every one knows what is meant and
is implied by such metaphorical expressions; and they are almost
necessary for brevity. So again it is difficult to avoid personifying the
word Nature; but I mean by nature, only the aggregate action and
product of many natural laws, and by laws the sequence of events as
ascertained by us. With a little familiarity such superficial objections
will be forgotten. (1859,Chapter 4).

 These laws, taken in the largest sense, being Growth with reproduction;
Inheritance which is almost implied by reproduction; Variability from the
indirect and direct action of the conditions of life, and from use and disuse;
a Ratio of Increase so high as to lead to a Struggle for Life, and as a
consequence to Natural Selection, entailing Divergence of Character and
the Extinction of less improved forms. (1859,Chapter 15).
Natural Selection, Mayr
Evolution is the result of both chance and necessity. There is
indeed a great deal of randomness ("chance") in evolution,
particularly in the production of genetic variation, but the
second step of natural selection, whether selection or
elimination, is an anti chance process. The eye, for instance, is
not a chance product. (Mayr, 167).
Yet the claims of natural theology ran into considerable difficulties….
Consideration of how God could have carried out his task of Creation
raised even more serious difficulties. The manifold adaptations of
structure, activity, behavior, and life cycle for each of the millions of
species of organisms were far too specific to be explained by general
laws. On the other hand, it seemed quite unworthy of creator to
believe that he personally arranged every detail in the traits and life
cycles of every individual down to the lowest organism. (Mayr, 179)
The Cause and Effect in Biology, Mayr,
Science, 134
N
Natural Selection,
Blind Watchmaker
Natural selection, the blind, unconscious, automatic process
which Darwin discovered, and which we now know is the
explanation for the existence and apparently purposeful form of
all life, has no purpose in mind. It has no mind and no
mind's eye. It does not plan for the future. It has no vision,
no foresight, no sight at all. If it can be said to play the role of
watchmaker in nature, it is the blind watchmaker.
Decent of Man
 Man may be excused for feeling some pride at having risen,
though not through his own exertions, to the very summit of the
organic scale; and the fact of his having thus risen, instead of
having been aboriginally placed there, may give him hope for a
still higher destiny in the distant future. But we are not here
concerned with hopes or fears, only with the truth as far as our
reason permits us to discover it; and I have given the evidence
to the best of my ability. We must, however, acknowledge, as
it seems to me, that man with all his noble qualities, with
sympathy which feels for the most debased, with
benevolence which extends not only to other men but to
the humblest living creature, with his god-like intellect
which has penetrated into the movements and constitution
of the solar system with all these exalted powers- Man still
bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin.
(Darwin, Decent of Man 459)
‫ از سازگارگرایی‬،‫ و تکامل داروینی‬،‫ خدا باوری‬.2
‫تا ضد سازگارگرایی‬
Theism and Darwinian Evolution
Creationism: that life on earth began some 10,000 to 50,000 years ago by God’s
separately creating each species (or each “basic kind” of organism). Inconsistent
Deism: the view that God created (i) the universe, (ii) the laws of nature, and (iii)
the initial conditions of the universe, and then sat back, allowing everything that
happens in nature to be a consequence of those three items. Consistent
Interventionist Theisms: God not only produced the (i)-(ii)-(iii) (deism) but also
intervened in nature after the universe’s beginning. Consistent(Sober, 2013)
(Atheism: Inconsistent)
‫خدا باوری و‬
‫تکامل داروینی‬
‫ضد‬
‫سازگارگرایان‬
‫ضد‬
‫سازگارگرایان‬
‫خدا باور‬
‫سازگارگرایان‬
‫ضد‬
‫سازگارگرایان‬
‫اتئیستی‬
‫سازگارگرایان‬
‫خدا باور‬
‫سازگارگرایان‬
‫تقلیل گرا‬
‫‪. 1‬ضد سازگارگرایان خدا باور‬
‫‪ .1‬غایت مندی نظام هستی و آفرینش الهی‬
‫«هر نوع از انواع موجودات مسیر خاصى در طریق استكمال‬
‫وجود‪ ،‬دارند‪ ،‬و آن مسیر هم داراى مراتب خاصى است‪ ،‬كه‬
‫هر یك مترتب بر دیگرى است تا منتهى شود به عالىترین‬
‫مرتبه‪ ،‬كه همان غایت و هدف نهایى نوع است‪».‬‬
‫‪ . 2‬آفرینش انسان‬
‫"با این بیان روشن میگردد که تمامی آیات قرآنی که از خلقت آدم از تراب و یا گل یا‬
‫امثال آن خبر میدهد‪ ،‬همه بر مدعای ما داللت میکند‪ ،‬یعنی میفهماند که خلقت او آنی و‬
‫بدون گذشت زمان ‪ ،‬و بدون پدر و مادر‪« »...‬فرضیه تحول انواع تنها و تنها فرضیهاى‬
‫است كه مسائل گوناگونى را با آن توجیه كنند و هیچ دلیل قاطع بر آن ندارند‪ ،‬پس حقیقتى‬
‫كه قرآن كریم بدان اشاره مىكند كه انسان نوعى جداى از سایر انواع است‪ ،‬هیچ‬
‫معارضى ندارد و هیچ دلیل علمى بر خالف آن نیست‪".‬‬
‫‪ِ ‬إن َمث َ َل ِعیسى ِع ْندَ ِ‬
‫اّلل َك َمث َ ِل آدَ َم َخلَقَه ِم ْن تراب ثم قا َل لَه‬
‫ك ْن فَیَكون ‪ "...‬كه صریح در این است كه خلقت آدم‬
‫مانند خلقت عیسى وخلقت عیسى مانند خلقت آدم خلقتى‬
‫استثنایى است و اگر منظور از كلمه" آدم" آدم نوعى‬
‫بود‪ ،‬دیگر تشبیه خلقت عیسى به آن معنا‬
‫نداشت‪(".‬طباطبایی‪ ،‬ج‪.)227 ،4‬‬
Creationist?
Peter Van Inwagen, 1942
William Dembski, 1970
Micheal Behe, 1952
Micheal Ruse, 1940
Robin Collins,
Brian Goodwin,1931 – 2009
،‫آفرینش‬
‫فرشچیان‬
The Creation of Adam,
Michelangelo, 1512
‫‪. 2‬ضد سازگارگرایان اتئیستی‪ ،‬داکینزـ دنت‬
‫‪ -1‬تعمیم تکامل زیستی دارویني به همه پدیدهها‪ ،‬داروینیسم مطلق‬
‫‪ -2‬تعارض داروینیسم (طبیعي) با باور به وجود خدا‬
‫‪ -3‬انتخاب طبیعي (در مقابل انتخاب فاعل هوشمند) به عنوان‬
‫عامل اصلی تنوع حیات‪ ،‬درخت حیات‪ ،‬و جهش موجودات‬
‫داروینیسم همه حیات زنده را شامل ميشود‪ ،‬حتي موجودات فرازمیني‪ .‬تنها با این نظریه ميتوان توضیح‬
‫دهد كه چرا ما هستیم و چرا اینگونه هستیم‪ ...‬داروینیسم زیربناي همه رشتههایي است كه به انسان مربوط‬
‫ميشود‪ ...‬تكامل دارویني عمیقترین حقیقت درباره طبیعت است كه علم تاكنون بدان دست یافته است‪ ،‬و یا‬
‫اساسا ممكن است دست بیابد‪“.‬‬
‫‪.3‬‬
‫سازگارگرایی خداباور‪ ،‬شهید مطهری‬
‫‪.1‬‬
‫‪.2‬‬
‫‪.3‬‬
‫‪.4‬‬
‫‪.5‬‬
‫تفکیک متون مذهبی از اصل خداشناسی و توحید‬
‫خلقت دفعی و آنی‪ ،‬ثبات و تبدل انواع‬
‫زبان نمادین قرآن درباره آفرینش انسان‬
‫اصول ماوراء طبیعی قانون تکامل داروینی‬
‫نیازمندی به اصل خدا باوری‬
‫«ما اصول داروین را بدون دخالت دادن یك اصل ماوراءالطبیعى‬
‫كااافى بااراد تباادل انااواع نمااىداناایم و بیشااتر ت كیااد مااا رود همااین هاات اساات كااه تااا اص ال‬
‫خداشناسى به یك تعبیر‪ ،‬و اصل علیت غایى به تعبیر دیگر را قباول نكنایم‪ ،‬تبادل اناواع‬
‫قابل تو یه نیست‪».‬‬
‫‪ .3‬سازگارگرایی خداباور‪ ،‬پالنتینگا‬
‫‪ .1 ‬طبیعت گرایی و تکامل داروینی‬
‫‪ .2 ‬قوای شناختی انسان‬
‫‪ .3‬تکامل داروینی هدایت شده‬
‫‪.4 ‬خدا مو ودی بسیط و علت پیچیدگی های دیگر‬
 )‫ سازگارگرایی تقلیل گرا (تفکیک‬.4
(‫ دئیست ها‬،‫) ان هات‬
Eliiot Sober (1948)
What I want to consider under the heading of (S) is the view
that God supplements what happens in the evolutionary
process without violating any laws. An intervention, as I‟ll
understand the term, is a cause; it can trigger an event or
sustain a process. Physicians do both when they intervene in
the lives of their patients. Physician intervention does not
entail any breakage in the laws of nature; neither does God‟.
( Sober 2011, 5)
Sober

a probabilistic model of the evolutionary process is consistent with the thesis that
the process is deterministic. If determinism is true, there are hidden variables that
affect the evolutionary process. Evolutionary theory says nothing about whether
such hidden variables exist. It therefore says nothing about whether there are
supernatural hidden variables.

Ernst Mayr (1961) emphasized the importance of distinguishing proximate from
ultimate causation. Mayr's point can be illustrated by considering the question of
why sunflowers turn towards the sun. One answer to this question cites the
proximate mechanism inside each sunflower that causes it to do so; the other
points to the reason the trait evolved, presumably natural selection. There is no
conflict between these two "levels" of explanation. The theistic evolutionist should
embrace Mayr's pair of concepts and add a third, maintaining that there is, in
addition)., a still more distal level of divine causation. God can direct the
evolutionary process in an ultimate sense, though mutations are undirected in a
proximate sense. Biology says nothing about the former and theism says nothing
about the latter.
Sober, 2011

Interventionist Theisms:
 Atheists may want to reach for Ockham‟s razor at this point and argue that
these theories are evidence against the existence of God precisely because
these theories show that the God hypothesis is not needed in science. But
the inference from “science can explain phenomenon X without invoking
the existence of God” to “God does not exist” is shaky (Sober 2010).
 Evolutionary theory, properly understood does not rule out God’s causing
some mutations, the theory does rule this out when you add something to it.
But the something else is a philosophical thesis, not a scientific theory at all
(Sober, 2013).
Atheists who think that evolutionary theory provides the
beginning of an argument for disbelieving in God should make it
clear that their arguments depend on additional premises that are
not vouchsafed by scientific theory or data. (Sober, 2013)
‫سازگارگرایی نا سازگار!؟‬
‫‪ .‬آیا فرآیند انتخاب طبیعی در تکامل داروینی (عامل‬
‫غیرهوشمند) میتواند از سوی خداوند (فاعل هوشمند)‬
‫طراحی و هدایت شود؟‬
‫استدالل ‪: 1‬‬
‫‪(1‬‬
‫‪(2‬‬
‫‪(3‬‬
‫‪(4‬‬
‫‪(5‬‬
‫‪(6‬‬
‫خدا وجود دارد‪ (.‬خدا =فاعل هوشمند‪ ،‬فاعل=قادر و علت‪،‬‬
‫هوشمند= عالم و غایت مند)‬
‫چنین نیست که خدا در فرآیند زیستی تکامل انواع فاعلیت‬
‫نداشته باشد‪)1(.‬‬
‫اگر خدا در فرآیند زیستی تکامل انواع فاعلیت دارد‪ ،‬فرایند‬
‫زیستی تکامل انواع هوشمند است‪ 1(.‬و ‪)2‬‬
‫فرایند زیستی تکامل انواع هوشمند نیست‪(.‬فرض انتخاب‬
‫طبیعی)‬
‫خدا در فرآیند زیستی تکامل انواع فاعلیت ندارد‪)4(.‬‬
‫خدا‪ ،‬فاعل هوشمند‪ ،‬وجود ندارد‪.‬‬
‫خدا و فاعلیت در فرآیند زیستی‬
‫‪.1‬خدا در فرآیند تنوع گونه های‬
‫زیستی فاعلیت دارد‪.‬‬
‫خدا‬
‫‪.2‬خدا در فرآیند تنوع گونه های‬
‫زیستی فاعلیت ندارد‪.‬‬
‫‪.3‬خدا به طور مستقل‬
‫فاعلیت دارد‬
‫‪.4‬خدا از طریق طبیعت و‬
‫یا قوانین طبیعت فاعلیت‬
‫دارد‬
‫‪.1‬خدا‪ ،‬نفس طبیعت و‬
‫یا قوانین طبیعت است‬
‫‪.2‬خدا‪ ،‬نفس طبیعت و یا‬
‫قوانین طبیعت را ای اد‬
‫کرده است‪.‬‬
‫استدالل ‪:2‬‬
‫‪ (1‬اگر خدا ) فاعل هوشمند( علت انتخاب طبیعی در تکامل انواع‬
‫است‪ ،‬انتخاب طبیعی غایت مند و هوشمند است‪.‬‬
‫‪ (2‬انتخاب طبیعی غایت مند و هوشمند نیست‪).‬فرض)‬
‫‪ (3‬خدا علت انتخاب طبیعی در تکامل انواع نیست‪.‬‬
‫راه حل نهایی‪...‬‬
‫‪ If it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed,‬‬
‫‪which could not possibly have been formed by numerous,‬‬
‫‪successive, slight modifications, my theory would absolutely‬‬
‫‪break down.(Darwin,1859, 4).‬‬
‫‪‬‬
‫‪ ‬منطق نص گرایي و واقع گرایي دیني (عالمه طباطبایي)‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬موارد نقص و یا نقض نظریه تکامل دارویني‪ ،‬از قبیل پیچیدگیهای تقلیل ناپذیر (مایکل‬
‫بیهی )‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬تمام نبودن اصول و قوانین علمی تکامل دارویني در تبیین زیستی تنوع گونهها و‬
‫نیازمندی به اصول دیگر (شهید مطهری و گوودوین)‪.‬‬