Ch. 10: Native Americans
 Most ethnohistorians place the number of Native
Americans who lived in what later became
known as the U.S. before European colonization
at between 6 and 10 million.
 In 1492 approximately 300 different Native
American languages were spoken
 Today, there are 275 Native American
reservations and the BIA recognizes 562
different tribal entities
Early Relations
 The Proclamation of 1763 followed Pontiac’s
uprising and declared that:
 All land west of the crest of the Appalachian
mountains was “Indian country;” and
 Any settlers west of the Appalachians who had
not acquired a legal title to their land from the
Indians must return to the colonies; and
 All future land purchases from the Indians must
be conducted in public meetings attended by
representatives from the king.
The 1787 Northwest Territory Ordinance
promised that:
1) “Utmost good faith shall always be
observed toward the Indians; their lands
and property shall never be taken from
them without their consent: and their
property, rights, and liberty, they shall
never be invaded or disturbed, unless in
just and lawful wars authorized by
Congress.”
Indian Removal
 In 1802, efforts were made to remove Cherokee
Indians from their rich Georgia lands. In spite of
the fact that the U.S. Supreme Court sided with
the Cherokee, and in spite of the fact that the
Cherokee had made the most remarkable efforts
to assimilate into the European-dominated way
of life, President Andrew Jackson sponsored and
supported the 1830 Indian Removal Act. He
totally disregarded the Supreme Court’s ruling
and over a period of six years concluded 94
treaties, facilitating the removal of Indians to the
territory now called Oklahoma
Trail of Tears
 Primarily removed Indians from the east of the
Mississippi to the west of the Mississippi
 Choctaws, Creeks, Chickasaws, and Cherokees
moved into territory already inhabited by
Comanches, Osages, and Pawnees, which led
to numerous disputes over cattle and game
 Most pre-removal treaties were not honored as
the westward expansion encroached even more
upon the new “Indian” wilderness
 The Seminoles refused to move
Sovereign Nations
 Sovereign Nations = the Indian tribes have a
government-to-government relationship with the
U.S. government. Possessing sovereignty gives
Indian tribes special privileges, such as making
tribal laws, not paying federal or state taxes,
establishing their own schools, and forming their
own governments. Court rulings have limited
tribal powers, and conflicts have arisen over
relationships between tribal governments and
state governments
Combining two Supreme Court Cases
(1832), the court ruled that the Cherokee
were a “domestic dependent nation”
Appropriations Act of 1871 stated that
Indian tribes would no longer be
recognized “powers” with whom the U.S.
may contract by treaty and made them
wards of the government
A Shameful History Continues
Bureau of Indian Affairs was created
(1824)
The Battle of Little Bighorn and the Treaty
of 1868
The Dawes Act (1887)- divide land into
tracts to be allotted to members of the
tribes; surplus can be sold
Between 1887-1934, the Indians lose over
87 million acres of land
Indian Education – BIA reservation
boarding school system and the “outing
system”
Efforts to “Christianize” while educating
Indian youths
The Ghost Dance and Wounded Knee
Sitting Bull arrested and killed
1911 the Society for American Indians
(SAI) adopted a constitution to promote
the advancement of Indian enlightenment
and citizenship among the Indians
Indian Reorganization Act (1934)
This act ended the land-allotment program,
encouraged tribal self-government, extended
financial credit to the tribes, gave preference in
BIA employment to Native Americans, and
permitted consolidation of Native American
lands split up through inheritance
1944 the National Congress of American
Indians (NCAI) formed by WWII Veterans
Termination- From 1953-1954 a series of
bills sought to end federal responsibility for
welfare and administration of Native
Americans
1961 the National Indian Youth Council
(NIYC) formed by young, urban Indians
who were activists
The Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968
1970 the American Indian Movement
(AIM) formed as a militant organization
Red Power
Pan-Indianism
A social movement attempting to establish a
Native American ethnic identity instead of just a
tribal identity
The Pan-Indianism movement has not
been completely accepted as many Native
Americans prefer to preserve their own
tribal identity
Action occurred at Alcatraz (1969) and at
Wounded Knee, SD (1973)
Present-Day Native American Life
 By 2002 the Native American and Alaska native
population was 2.8 million
The Native American birth rate is almost twice the
national average
Many Native Americans live on reservations that provide
inadequate economic support
 Chronic unemployment is a serious problem
 Some tribes have succeeded through their own
efforts
 Gaming- More than 240 tribes have gaming
The average life span in some tribes is 45
years
Nationally, the average life span is about 10
years less than the average
Deaths by suicide among Native American
males aged 15 to 24 is 50% greater than
among the general population’s youth
The most serious problem facing Native
Americans today is alcohol abuse
The Educational Amendments Act of 1978
gave substantial control over school
programs to the Native American
communities
Bilingual Native American language
programs in 17 states help preserve
ancestral language and teach English to
children who were raised in homes where
only their tribal language was spoken
One of the most visible signs of Native
Americans’ economic deprivation is
reservation house
Most Native Americans live in urban
regions of the country and are moving
rapidly toward cultural assimilation
Twice as many urban Native Americans
live in poverty compared to all other racial
and ethnic groups combined
Although urban Native Americans are
more likely to be employed than those who
remain on the reservation, they do not
achieve any improved income earnings,
on average, until after five years of
residence in the city
Income inequality
Infant mortality rates
Marital assimilation
By 1990, 59% of married Indians were
married to non-Indians nationally
Is intermarriage really that high?
Who can claim to be Native American?
Blood Quantum = indicates the degree to
which a person is of Indian ancestry and is
a key concept used historically as well as
currently in administrative definitions of
who is an American Indian
Self-identification- current method of
classification by U.S. Bureau of the
Census
2003 Census Facts on Native Americans
3.1 million claim a tribal membership
Large % are children <18 years of age
292,000 are elderly >65 years of age
1 million families consisting of 63% are
married & 57% with children
14% earned a bachelor’s degree and 75%
earned a high school diploma
CA and NY have largest populations