Extreme Temperatures and Thermal Tolerance • All organism have a range of tolerable body temperatures – Homeothermic endotherms – narrow range – Poikilothermic ectotherms – broad range • Exceeding limit of thermal tolerance – DEATH!!!!! Extreme Temperatures and Thermal Tolerance Factors influencing lethal exposure: • Exposure Temperature – Degree to which temperature exceeds limits of tolerance • Exposure Duration – Length of time to which organism is exposed to lethal temperature • Individual Variation Problems With High Temperature • Denaturization of proteins – Structural and enzymatic • Thermal inactivation of enzymes faster than rates of activation • Inadequate O2 supply to meet metabolic demands • Different temperature effects on interdependent metabolic reactions (“reaction uncoupling”) • Membrane structure alterations • Increased evaporative water loss (terrestrial animals) Problems with Low Temperatures • Thermal inactivation of enzymes faster than rates of activation • Inadequate O2 supply to meet metabolic demands • Different temperature effects on interdependent metabolic reactions (“reaction uncoupling”) • Membrane structure alterations • Freezing Freezing • Drastic reduction in gas diffusion – liquid water vs. solid water • Drastic reduction in enzyme function – Reduced molecular mobility • Structural disruption of enzymes • Mechanical disruption of cell membranes • Osmotic dehydration due to freezing of extracellular water – Most important factor Dealing with Subfreezing Temperatures • Supercooling – Freezing point depression • Use of antifreeze • Freeze tolerance Supercooling • Water does not usually freeze at 0 °C – Freezing involves ice crystallization – Can occur spontaneously below 0 °C – Water can remain liquid until crystallization occurs Supercooling • Supercooling can be enhanced by addition of solutes to an aqueous solution – [solutes], freezing point • Freezing point depression – E.g. insects • Produce high levels of glycerol • Lowers freezing point • Willow gallfly larvae can supercool to –60 °C Antifreeze • Antifreeze – substance that prevents ice crystal formation – thermal hysteresis - lowers freezing point but not melting point Freeze Tolerance • Ability to tolerate freezing of extracellular fluid – Must cope with… • potential mechanical damage • effects of dehydration • Cryoprotectants – Substances that help animals avoid damage from freezing of body tissues – E.g. glycerol • appears to stabilize cell membrane and protein structure Freeze Tolerance • Many freeze tolerant organisms have icenucleating agents – Promotes ice-crystal formation in the extracellular fluid • Draws water out of the cells, intracellular concentrations and freezing point – Helps prevent crystal formation inside the cells • Prevents mechanical damage Thermal Adapation • Different species have adapted to differences in temperature between species ranges Thermal Acclimatization • Acclimation and acclimatization are physiological changes in response to previous thermal history • Exposure to warm temperatures increases heat tolerance, decreases cold tolerance • Thermal tolerance of many species changes with seasonal changes in temperature Mechanisms of Thermal Acclimatization and Adaptation • Changes in enzyme systems – Changes in enzyme synthesis/degradation – Changes in use of specific isozymes – Modulation of enzyme activity by the intracellular environment • Changes in membrane phospholipids – increase saturation of fatty acids with increased temperature – homeoviscous adaptation Temperature Regulation Approaches to thermoregulation: • Thermal conformity (poikilothermy) – allow body temperature to fluctuate with environmental temperature • Thermoregulation (homeothermy) – Maintain body temperature at relatively constant levels largely independent of mean environmental temperature Thermoregulation Methods • Behavioral control – Controlling body temperature by repositioning body in the environment • Physiological control – Neural responses (immediate) • E.g. modification of blood flow to skin, sweating/panting, shivering, etc. – Acclimation responses (long-term) • Changes in insulation, increased capacity got metabolic heat generation, etc. Ectothermy • Obtain body heat from external environment • Environmental heat availability subject to change – Some thermally stable environments • vary only 1-2 °C/year – Some highly variable environments • 80 °C variation in one year – Most ectotherms must deal with some degree of temperature variation Ectotherms and Cold • Inactivity of enzyme systems – Cold-adapted species have enzymes that function at higher rates at lower temperatures • Subfreezing Temperatures – Supercooling – Antifreezes – Freeze Tolerance Ectotherms and Heat • Problems associated with heat – Enzyme denaturization and pathway uncoupling – Elevated energy requirements – Reduced O2 delivery • affinity of Hb for O2 decreases with increased temperature • Critical Thermal Maximum (CTM) – Body temperature over which long-term survival is no longer possible Ectotherms and Temperature Regulation • Behavioral Regulation – Reposition body relative to heat sources in the thermal environment – Most widely used method • Physiological Regulation – Redirect blood flow for increased heat gain-heat loss – Pigmentation changes • absorb/reflect radiant heat Ectothermy vs. Endothermy Ectothermy – low energy approach to life • Pros – Less food required – Lower maintenance costs (more energy for growth and reproduction) – Less water required (lower rates of evaporation) – Can be small – exploit niches endotherms cannot. • Cons – Reduced ability to regulate temperature – Reduced aerobic capacity – cannot sustain high levels of activity Ectothermy vs. Endothermy Endothermy – high energy approach to life • Pros – Maintain high body temperature in narrow ranges – Sustain high body temperature in cold environments – High aerobic capacity – sustain high levels of activity • Cons – – – – Need more food (energy expenditure 17x that of ectotherms) More needed for maintenance, less for growth and reproduction Need more water (higher evaporative water loss) Must be big Endotherms • Generate most body heat physiologically • Tend to be homeothermic – regulate body temperature (Tb) by adjusting heat production Regional Homeothermy • Core body temperature – Temperature at the interior of the body (thoracic and abdominal cavity, brain, etc.) – Maintained within narrow margins • Peripheral body temperature – Temperature of integument, limbs, etc. – Tends to vary considerably Metabolism vs. Ambient Temperature • Thermal Neutral Zone – basal rate of heat production balances heat loss – No additional energy required to regulate temperature, just modification of thermal conductance • Lower Critical Temperature – Temperature below which basal metabolism does not produce enough heat to balance heat loss • Upper Critical Temperature – Temperature above which modifying thermal conductance cannot balance net heat gain Below the Lower Critical Temperature… • Zone of Metabolic Regulation – Increase in metabolism to increase heat production to balance increased heat loss – Shivering, BAT, etc. • Hypothermia – Increased metabolic production cannot compensate for heat loss – Tb decreases (as does metabolism) Above the Upper Critical Temperature… • Zone of Active Heat Dissipation – Animal increases activity to increase heat loss – Evaporative cooling • Hyperthermia – Evaporative cooling cannot counteract heat gain – Tb rises (as does metabolism) towards CTM Endothermic Homeothermy in the Cold • Endotherms respond to low ambient temperatures by: – Increasing heat production (thermogenesis) – Limiting heat loss Thermogenesis • Shivering – Rapid contractions in groups of antagonistic muscles – No useful work generated – Heat liberated by hydrolysis of ATP • Non-shivering Thermogenesis – Enzyme systems activated that oxidize fats to produce heat – Virtually no ATP production Non-shivering Thermogenesis • Brown Adipose Tissue (BAT) – Highly vascularized, with large numbers of mitochondria – Inner mitochondrial membranes contain thermogenin • Allows H+ to bypass ATP synthase • Protons re-enter mitochondrial matrix and bind to O2, generating heat and water – Heat absorbed by blood in vasculature and distributed throughout the body Body Heat Retention • Insulation – Fur/hair/feathers (pelage) • Reduce effects of convection – Fat/blubber • Lower thermal conductivity of integument • Low metabolic activity (low perfusion needed) – Aggregration • Reduce convection effects Body Heat Retention • Increased body size – surface area/volume ratio – Generally thicker coats – Bergmann’s Rule • size w/ latitude Body Heat Retention • Circulation – Reduced skin perfusion • Limit heat loss from blood – Countercurrent Exchange • Heat transferred from arteries to veins • Limit heat loss from extremities Endothermic Homeothermy in the Heat • Endotherms respond to high ambient temperatures by: 1. Limiting heat gain 2. Increasing heat dissipation Limiting Heat Gain • Increased Size – Large animals have large heat capacities and low surface area/volume ratios • Take longer to heat up – Large animals tend to have thicker pelage • Insulate body from external heating Increasing Heat Dissipation • Specific heat exchange surfaces – Enable heat loss through conduction/convection/radiation – Thin cuticle – Highly vascularized – Lightly insulated – Large surface areas – Allen’s Rule • The warmer the climate, the larger the size of appendages Evaporative Cooling • Sweating – Extrusion of water through sweat glands onto the skin • Panting – Evaporative cooling through the respiratory system surfaces Sweating vs. Panting • Sweating – – – – Passive (little energy expenditure) High salt loss No convection No effect on blood pH • Panting – – – – Active (requires muscle contraction) No salt loss Convection – increases cooling Increased ventilation pH Panting and Brain Cooling • Panting can cool brain during high levels of activity – Rete mirabile • heat exchange between warm arterial blood and cooled venous blood from nasal cavity – Maintain brain temperature despite abnormally high body temperature