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The Renaissance Main Themes:
1. Why was the Renaissance a turning point in the development of Western civilization? Why was
it a "rebirth"?
2. How was the Renaissance in Italy different from that in Northern Europe? How was it the same?
3. How did the Catholic Church loose the dominant position it had had during the medieval period
in the Renaissance?
I. The Renaissance as the bridge between the medieval and the modern world.
MEDIEVAL WORLD
RENAISSANCE WORLD
philosophy:
scholasticism.
humanism.
economics:
manorialism.
barter economy.
merchant princes of Italy.
money economy.
beginnings of Commercial
Revolution.
politics:
feudalism.
city-states of Northern
Italy.
rise of modern nationstates in
Northern Europe.
the arts:
stylized, religious
themes.
harmony, balance,
proportion.
modelled after ancient
Greece
and Rome.
classicism revised.
religion:
domination of Catholic
Church.
individual interpretation of
the
Scriptures.
classical literary criticism.
groundwork laid for Prot.
Reform.
society:
chivalry.
feudal class structure.
individualism.
secularism.
II. Major Upheavals of the Lat 14c-Early 15c --> Period of "creative breakup"
(The Calamitous 14c -- Barbara Tuchman)
A. Hundred years' War --> the rise of the modern nation-state.
B. Black Death --> economic and social upheaval.
C. Avignon papacy and the Conciliar Movement --> breakup of papal power.
III. Italian Renaissance:
A. "pagan" humanism
-- revival of interest in the Greek and Roman classics.
-- enjoyment of worldly pleasures.
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-- vernacular literature --> Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, etc.
B. l'uomo universale --> concept of the universal, "Renaissance Person".
-- Castiglione's The Book of the Courtier
-- Leonardo Da Vinci
-- Michelangelo
-- Isabella d'Este
C. great Italian cities
-- Florence --> the "heart" of Italian Renaissance culture.
-- Venice --> the main center of Italian Renaissance trade.
-- Rome --> still spiritual capital of Christendom (corrupt popes -- ex., Alexander VI)
D. Italian politics --> Machiavelli's The Prince
-- the "merchant" princes (Medici family).
-- despots (Caesare Borgia).
-- machiavellianism and virtu.
E. Art --> Quattrocento and the High Renaissance
-- the different artistic styles of the two periods??
-- how did these styles and the artistic themes of the paintings and sculpture reflect the
philosophy of Renaissance humanism??
IV. The Northern Renaissance:
A. "Christian" humanism
-- Desiderius Erasmus --> In Praise of Folly
-- Thomas More --> Utopia
-- Rabelais --> Gargantua
-- Cervantes --> Don Quijote
-- Michel de Montaigne --> Essays (skepticism)
-- a trace of mysticism
-- criticisms of the Church, but WITHIN the Church.
B. Gutenberg --> printing press --> What were its effects on the spread of humanist ideas??
C. vernacular writing --> Shakespeare, Cervantes, Rabelais.
D. the arts:
-- differences in artistic style between Northern Europe and Italy??
-- the Flemish School --> Jan van Eyck, Hans Holbein, Rembrandt, etc.
V. The Decline of the Renaissance Church:
A. general symptoms of failure??
B. the rise of national churches in England, France, Spain, Italy, and the Germanies (as a
result of the breakdown in old feudal ties and obligations).
C. Conciliar movement.
D. indulgence controversy.
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The Reformation Main Themes:
1. Why do the ideas of the Protestant reformers reflect the ideas of the Christian humanists?
2. What were the basic tenants of each of the major Protestant faiths? How did these faiths differ
with Catholicism?
3. Why was there a stronger reformation in Germany and England than in the rest of Europe?
4. What were the long-term political and social effects of the Reformation on Europe?
I. The Reformation was the outgrowth of past ideas:
HUMANISTS
SIR THOMAS MORE --> expressed
idea of communal living; no class
distinctions; no unemployment; no
competition; everyone living and
working together; defied
Henry VIII; Catholic martyr.
ERASMUS --> believed true religion
was a matter of inward sincerity and
pious devotion rather than an outward
symbol of ceremony and ritual;
Scriptures are the guide to life;
wanted only moral reforms, not
ritualistic.
REFORMERS
JOHN CALVIN --> people
already predestined for
salvation; success on earth
determined place in heaven;
hard work and no leisure time
were signs of success.
LUTHER --> condemned
corruption in the Church;
believed priests should practice
what they preached. The Bible
was a way of life; did not
believe in pompous Church
ceremonies; clergy not
important; everyone is their
own priest; one should be able
to talk to God directly.
II. Causes of the Reformation:
A. dissatisfaction with wealth of Church; poor people believing bishops were of the wealthy
oppressive class.
-- much financial abuse in Church --> simony, benefices; 30% of land in Eur. under
Church control.
B. corruption in Church leadership (ex. Alexander VI, Rodrigo Borgia)
C. decline in papal influence --> nationalistic churches springing up.
-- "Babylonian Captivity"
-- Great Schism
-- Henry VIII of England's defiance of papal power.
-- conciliarism
D. Martin Luther's 95 Theses.
E. the middle class wished to run their religious affairs as they handled their new businesses.
-- they found Church bureaucracies still too medieval and rigid (view on usury, e.g.)
-- Calvinist church came largely from these ideas (Max Weber's thesis -- "Protestant
Work Ethic")
F. Great Peasant Revolt of 1520.
III. The Reformation worked in Northern Europe because:
A. monarchies resented the Church for not paying any taxes to the nation, but collecting
taxes
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from citizens belonging to the Church and sending the money to Rome.
B. Luther appealed to nationalistic feelings in the German states
-- he denounced the Pope for involvement in politics as well as religion.
-- he backed the nobility in the Peasant Revolt.
C. The upper class saw an opportunity to confiscate church property.
D. Printing press in Germany spread Luther's ideas.
-- Bibles were made accessible to the populous in the vernacular.
-- individual interpretation of Sacred Scriptures.
IV. The Reformation did NOT work in Italy because?:
A. The Pope was in Rome and was Italian (use of Spanish Inquisition).
B. The Catholic Church was a source of wealth for Italy.
C. The Italian Renaissance made Italy prosperous. (money in art--a large part was
Church-sponsored)
D. Italian universities made the questioning of theological principles unheard of.
E. Germany was the home of Luther and of many new, more theologically "liberal"
universities.
V. Lutheranism:
A. Salvation by faith alone.
B. No need for sacraments (except Baptism, Eucharist, & Confirmation) or good works.
C. Only true authority is the Bible.
D. Each person must deal with God directly -- each person is his/her own priest.
E. Consubstantiation.
F. No difference between the laity and the clergy.
G. Kept bishops for administrative purposes.
H. Refusal to recognize the authority of the Pope.
I. Married clergy.
J. Religious services in the vernacular.
K. The Church is subordinate to and the agent of civil authority.
VI. Calvinism:
A. Pessimistic about man; optimistic about God.
B. Predestination ("the elect").
C. Strict interpretation of the Bible. (literal)
D. Rejected Papal authority.
E. Scorned pleasures as the idle activities which allowed the devil to influence one's actions;
no smoking, drinking, gambling, blaspheming, dancing, music in religious services.
F. Only "sacraments" were Baptism and the Eucharist (were only a symbol of God's
presence).
G. Consubstantiation.
H. Church elders administered to the congregation (presbyters).
I. Too much leisure time leads to sin.
J. Puritans in England; Huguenots in France; Presbyterians in Scotland.
VII. Anglicanism:
A. Henry VIII of England resented the church for not granting him a divorce of Catherine of
Aragon.
-- he wanted church lands and property to add to his treasury.
B. the monarch of England now became the head of the Anglican Church as well.
C. Book of Common Prayer (Edward VI)
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D. one had to be Anglican to hold a government job until the late 19c.
VIII. Social Significance of the Reformation:
A. Basic and lasting changes in education and the image and role of women.
B. It implemented the educational ideas of humanism. (study original sources in the original
language).
IX. After Effects of the Reformation:
A. Catholic "Counter"-Reformation
-- Council of Trent --> internal reforms and a clear listing of Church doctrines.
-- a conservative response to the spread of Protestantism.
-- "Men are to be changed by religion, not change it!."
-- reformed many of the previous abuses in the Church.
-- the Inquisition was resurrected (esp. strong in Spain --> expulsion of the Moors
{Moriscos}
back to North Africa and the Jews {Maranos} to Italy and the Middle East).
-- new reform orders (Theatines, Capuchins, Ursulines, Modern Devotion, Oratorians).
-- mysticism movement (St. Theresa of Avila, St. John of the Cross).
-- The Index of Forbidden Books.
B. Religious Wars of the late 16c & Thirty Years' War (1618-1648)
-- SEE TREATIES PAGE for Peace of Augsburg (1555), Edict of Nantes (1598), and
Treaty of Westphalia (1648).
Commercial Revolution Main Themes:
1. Nations were looking for new trade routes which led to new explorations.
2. Nations sought new sources of wealth and new economic theories and practices to deal with
this new-found wealth.
3. Nations had the desire for increased world power through their colonial empires.
I. The Economy of the Commercial Revolution:
A. mercantilism --> the colony existed for the benefit of the mother country; a monpolistic
global eco.
system.
B. bullionism --> the accumulation of precious metals by governments was seen as very
important to the
prestige and power of a modern nation.
C. capitalism --> private ownership of the means of production and distribution; capital is
invested in
order to produce more capital.
D. Emergence of a new eco. system:
-- new No. European banking interests --> Fugger family.
-- charter banks --> Bank of Amsterdam (1609); bank of London (1694).
-- stock exchange --> Bourse at Antwerp.
-- insurance companies --> Lloyd's of London (maritime -- ship catalogs/classifications).
-- joint-stock companies.
E. Development of the Domestic System:
-- increased specialization of skills within a more efficient system of over-all production.
-- farm families can supplement their incomes.
-- the accumulation of capital in the hands of the entrepreneur made possible the
purchase of raw
material in greater bulk.
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-- the capitalist entrepreneur could now operate without the restrictions imposed by the
urban guilds.
II. The Age of European Discovery:
A. Columbus and the first conquistadores.
-- ecological exchange and its effects on both the Americas and Europe and Africa.
-- destruction of Amer-Indian cultures.
B. Establishment of European Colonial Empires in the Americas and Asia.
-- encomienda system (Latin America).
-- Portuguese/Dutch/British/French trade in Southeast Asia.
III. Effects of the Commercial Revolution:
A. inflation --> "price revolution".
B. population increase --> emergence of the middle class.
C. increase in world trade.
D. shift from the old market ports of the Mediterranean to the trans-Atlantic trade.
E. new trade restrictions (ex.: East India Co. --> royal monopolies).
F. economic depression at the end of the 16c.
G. African slave trade established (Triangle Trade).
H. changes in the social structure (role of the nobility, esp.) in Eastern and Western Europe.
Age of Absolutism Main Themes:
1. The During the 17c and 18c, Britain, France, Austria, Prussia, and Russia were able to establish
or
maintain a strong monarchy, standing army, efficient tax structures, large bureaucracy, and a
more
or less domesticated, divided or loyal nobility so that this period is known as the "Age of
Absolutism."
2. England and France experienced very different political and social developments in the late
17c.
3. French culture and political power dominated Europe in the 18c.
4. One of the major reasons for the strong position of England from 1685-1763 lies in the
supremacy of
a parliament dominated by landowners and nobles of similar interests. The 18c became known
as the "Age of the Aristocracy". Therefore, this supremacy of Parliament provided Britain with
the
kind of unity sought elsewhere through absolutism.
5. This period saw the beginnings of two long-term conflicts--Britain and France over trade and
overseas empire and Austria and Prussia over the leadership of Germany.
I. Differing Concepts of Absolutism:
A. Thomas Hobbes --> pro-absolutism; pro-"divine-right" monarchy.
B. John Locke
-- rejected absolute governments.
-- basic human rights that no government can take away: life, liberty, and property.
-- the right of the citizen to rebel against a government that violated these basic human
rights.
II. 17c England: (see notes on the sheet regarding the evolution of Parliament)
A. James I (1603-1625) -- supported absolute divine-right.
B. Charles I (1625-1649)
-- fought openly with Parliament and the Puritans over money for his wars with Spain.
-- arbitrary abuse of power (quartering troops, ship money, arbitrary arrests, etc.)
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-- Long Parliament (1640-1660)
C. Civil war (1642-1649): Roundheads versus Cavaliers
D. the Commonwealth (1649-1660) under the Cromwell’s.
-- Puritan Republic.
-- Ulster Plantation.
-- unpopular military dictatorship. (Lord Protector)
E. Charles II (1660-1685) --> Stuart Restoration
-- he learned the lessons of his predecessors (Don't mess with Parliament!)
-- religious toleration, but leaned toward the Catholics.
-- Test Act (1673).
-- Habeas Corpus Act (1679).
-- he launched bold new foreign policy ventures challenging the Dutch for the
commercial
leadership of Europe.
F. James II (1685-1688)
-- became unpopular because of his open Catholicism and return to absolute rule.
G. William & Mary --> "Glorious Revolution" (1688); a bloodless coup.
-- Parliament now reigned supreme.
-- never again would British kings be as powerful as Parliament.
-- English Bill of Rights (1668-1689) --> it settled all of the major issues between the kings
and
Parliament (** see your notes for further details **)
H. development of the modern British political system:
-- Whigs and Tories (distinctions between political party).
-- evolution of the Cabinet system.
-- Prime Minister (Robert Walpole, first P. M.)
III. The Age of Louis XIV: (the "Sun King")
A. Henry IV of Navarre (1589-1610)
-- first to establish the Bourbon family.
-- he began to curtail the privileges of the Fr. nobility.
-- he issued the Edict of Nantes (** see treaties sheet **)
B. Louis XIII (1616-1643)
-- Cardinal Richelieu (Machiavellian pragmatist)
-- he committed Fr. to the Protestant side in the Thirty Years' War.
C. Louis XIV (1643-1715)
-- goals:
-- make France the strongest country in Europe.
-- make France the intellectual and political "light" to the rest of the world.
-- L'etat, c'est moi! [I am the State!]
-- government and administration:
-- firm and uniform administration (intendants)
-- war became an activity of the state (the armed forces were formerly in private hands).
-- strengthened the army.
-- built Versailles (keep the nobles under his watchful eyes!)
-- never called the Estates-General.
-- economic and financial policies
-- costly, inefficient methods of tax collecting (nobility not taxed)
-- Colbert, finance minister.
-- mercantilism.
-- monopolies abroad (ex: French East India Company)
-- religion
-- Protestants suffered.
-- religious unity considered necessary to strengthen his rule.
-- revoked the Edict of Nantes.
-- vigorous foreign policy (** see 5-page sheets on Commercial & Dynastic Wars **)
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-- War of the League of Augsburg.
-- War of the Spanish Succession.
-- War of Devolution.
-- effects of his reign:
POSITIVE






he tried to make France
more powerful.
he centralized the Fr.
government.
he improved Fr. militarily.
he made Fr. a commercial
rival of Britain.
he tamed the Fr.
aristocracy.
he made the King and the
State one and the same.
NEGATIVE



he taxed the peasants, not
the nobility.
he was too extravagant (he
put France into great
debt).
the court at Versailles was
too removed from the lives
and problems of the
common people.
IV. Eastern Europe:
A. Hapsburgs vs. Hohenzollerns
-- growing competition in the Germanies.
-- Pragmatic Sanctions (Maria Theresa).
-- Hapsburg interests --> Bohemia, Austria, Hungary, Ottoman Empire (Balkans).
-- Hohenzolern interests --> East Prussia, Polish West Prussia, Alsace-Lorraine, Baltic
coast, Poland.
B. policies of Leopold II, Maria Theresa, Joseph II --> "Enlightened Despots"
C. policies of Frederick William, the "Great Elector", Frederick I, and Frederick II, the "Great".
D. Russia in the 17c and early 18c:
-- Peter the Great --> "Westernization of Russia". ("Windows to the West")
-- Catherine the Great --> expansion of Russian borders in SW; solidifying the power of the
Czars; sometimes seen as an "Enlightened Despot" (this is questionable).
Scientific Revolution Main Themes:
1. The Renaissance and Reformation paved the way for the new science and philosophy of the
17c and 18c.
2. The transition from the Middle Ages to early modern times represented a shift in emphasis
from authoritative truth to factual truth.
I. The Scientific Revolution:
A. Basic questions were asked: Who am I? What is my purpose in life? How can science
and natural
laws be applied to society? What is the nature of the good society?
B. Rene Descartes --> deductive method; systematic doubting (I think, therefore I am.) -->
Cartesian dualism
C. Sir Francis Bacon --> inductive reasoning.
D. Changing views of the universe:
-- classical and medieval view --> geocentric theory (Ptolemaic view).
-- Copernicus --> heliocentric theory.
-- Kepler --> Laws of Planetary Motion (elliptical orbits).
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-- Galileo --> perfected the telescope; analyzed the nature of motion.
-- Newton --> Law of Universal Gravity; the universe is seen as one great "machine"
operating according to unalterable universal laws and principles.
II. Affects of the Scientific Revolution:
A. Philosophical --> 17c was a period of intellectual transition (weariness with religious
strife).
-- Blaise Pascal --> reason will bring one to faith and a dependence upon divine grace.
-- Deism --> God is seen as the "first cause" in the universe; but the world operates
without God's constant intervention. Watchmaker
B. Literature --> Milton (Paradise Lost); John Bunyon (Pilgrim's Progress).
C. Other scientific discoveries --> chemistry (Boyle), botany, anatomy (Harvey), physiology.
Main Themes:
1. The Enlightenment had its origins in the scientific and intellectual revolutions of the 17c.
2. Enlightenment thinkers felt that change and reason were both possible and desirable for the
sake of human liberty.
3. Enlightenment philosophes provided a major source of ideas that could be used to undermine
existing social and political structures.
I. The Major Themes of the Era:
A. rationalism --> logical reasoning based on facts.
B. cosmology --> new world view based on Newtonian physics --> analysis of natural
phenomena as
systems.
C. secularism --> application of scientific theories to religion and society.
D. scientific method --> experimentation; observation; hypothesis.
E. utilitarianism (Bentham) --> laws created for the common good and not for special
interests.
The greatest good for the greatest number.
F. optimism & self-confidence --> anything is possible (a reversal of medieval thinking).
G. tolerance --> a greater acceptance of different societies and cultures.
H. freedom --> a mind as well as a society free to think, free from prejudice.
I. mass education.
J. legal / penal reforms --> Beccaria, Bentham.
K. constitutionalism.
L. cosmopolitanism.
II. The Philosophes:
A. Not really philosophers, but men who sought to apply reason and common sense to
nearly all the major
institutions and mores of the day.
B. They attacked Christianity for its rejection of science, otherworldliness, and belief in
man's depravity
(Deism).
C. Their major sources:
LOCKE --> man's nature is changeable and can be improved by his environment.
NEWTON --> empirical experience and the rationality of the natural world.
BRITAIN --> exemplified a society in which enlightened reason served the common
good.
D. France became the center for Enlightenment since its decadent absolutism and political
and religious
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censorship seemed to prove the need for reform.
E. Paris salons.
F. Diderot's Encyclopedie.
FRANCOIS QUESNAY --> land is the only source of wealth, and agriculture increases
that wealth;
therefore, the mercantilists were wrong to put so much
importance on the
accumulation of money.
ADAM SMITH --> Wealth of Nations --> he challenged mercantilist doctrine as selfish
and unnatural;
the interdependence among nations; "Father of Modern Capitalism".
H. Montesquieu --> The Spirit of the Laws
-- admired the British government.
-- separation of powers in the government.
-- checks and balances.
I. Rousseau --> The Social Contract
-- "Father of Romanticism".
-- he differed from the other philosophes, esp. Locke:
-- law is the expression of the "General Will."
-- rejected science and reason; go with your feelings (inner conscience).
-- "Man is born free, but is everywhere in chains!"
J. Voltaire -- Candide
-- champion of individual rights.
-- "I do not agree with a word you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say
it!"
-- leading advocate of Enlightened Despotism.
III. Enlightened Despotism:
A. Prussia:
-- Frederick I (1714-1740) -- the "Sergeant" King.
-- Frederick II (1740-1786)
B. Habsburg Austria:
-- Maria Theresa (1740-1780) --> Pragmatic Sanctions.
-- Joseph II (1765-1790) --> considered to be the only true "enlightened" despot.
C. Russia:
-- Peter the Great (1682-1725) --> Westernization ("Windows to the West").
-- Catherine the Great (1762-1796) --> rigorous foreign policy; partitions of Poland.
IV. Results of Enlightenment Thought:
A. contributing factor in the American and French Revolutions.
B. Enlightenment thinking reflected in the U. S. Declaration of Independence.
C. Enlightened Despots.
D. European thought became centered on the belief in reason, science, individual rights, and
the progress of civilization.
French Revolution Main Themes:
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1. The French Revolution passed through distinct stages, each of which can be found in every
major
revolution (** See Crane Brinton's sheet on Stages of a revolution **).
2. Old regimes overthrown by revolution are not only corrupt and bankrupt, but incapable of
defending
themselves.
3. Revolutions occur in societies in which poverty is a factor, but not always extreme poverty.
4. A revolution will continue until the needs of all segments of society are met.
5. The French Revolution was a collision between a decadent aristocracy and a rising middle
class.
I. Causes of the Revolution:
A. Failure of Enlightenment despots in France to satisfy all social classes.
B. Dissatisfaction with the Ancien Regime.
C. High taxation of the poor to support the luxurious lifestyle at Versailles and of the upper
clergy.
D. Social class unrest --> vast social inequality (Three Estates); no real social mobility.
E. The government isolates itself from the problems of the poor.
F. War debts --> eventual financial collapse.
G. Ideas of the Enlightenment.
II. Phases of the Revolution:
A. absolutism --> Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette.
B. limited constitutional monarchy --> Legislative Assembly (middle class is in charge).
-- Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
-- Civil Constitution of the Clergy.
-- Constitution of 1791.
C. First French Republic --> National Convention
-- king and queen executed.
-- France engaged in foreign wars against the First Coalition.
D. radical phase --> "Reign of Terror" under Robespierre
-- Committee of Public Safety.
-- Jacobins.
-- Sans-culotte (revolt of the lower classes in the cities).
E. Thermidorean Reaction --> Directory
-- weak, with little support outside of the military.
-- government in the hands of the property owners who did nothing to relieve the
problems of
the lower classes (conservative reaction to the radicalism of the Terror).
F. The Consulate --> "enlightened" despotism of Napoleon Bonaparte
III. Results of the French Revolution:
A. Democratic ideals established --> Liberte, Egalite, Fraternite!
B. Intensified French nationalism.
C. The French Revolution influenced peoples throughout the world.
D. A society and a political structure based on rank and birth had given way to one based on
civil
equality.
E. Representation was established as a principle of practical politics.
F. Eliminated feudal obligations of peasants, destroyed guilds, and other obstacles to the
growth of
French industry and agriculture.
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Napoleonic Era Main Themes:
1. Napoleon's conquests stimulated liberalism and nationalism throughout Europe.
2. The concept of a "balance of power" was formally put into practice by the Vienna
Settlement and proved to be successful for the next 100 years.
I. Napoleon's Accomplishments: Son of the Revolution OR Military Dictator???
A. Centralization of French local government.
B. Furtherance of public education.
C. Settlement of religious conflicts brought about during the Revolution --> Concordat of
1801.
D. Legal reforms --> Code Napoleon (**see your notes for details **)
E. Improved French finances --> Bank of France established.
F. Public works projects built.
II. Napoleon's Influence Upon Europe:
A. Map changes (** see your notes for Vienna Settlement provisions **)
B. Spread French revolutionary ideas.
C. Ended the Old Regime abuses of feudalism and serfdom.
D. Introduced the Code Napoleon to other countries in Central Europe.
E. He aroused a spirit of intolerant nationalism among the conquered peoples.
F. Confederation of the Rhine created --> aided eventual German unification.
III. The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815): (Metternich, Castlereah, Czar Alexander I, Tallyrand)
A. Restore the pre-French revolutionary balance of power (principle of legitimacy) and keep
Fr. weak.
B. Compensation -- territorial musical chairs.
C. Denial of democracy and nationalism --> try to "put the genie {of revolutionary ideals}
back in the
bottle".
D. Metternich's policies ("Age of Reaction"):
-- press censorship --> Carlsbad Decrees.
-- Quadruple Alliance --> "Concert of Europe".
-- Dutch Republic revived as the Netherlands.
-- Sardinia restored.
-- created a new Poland.
-- he made no concessions to the principle of popular sovereignty.
19th Century Restoration, Reaction, & Romantic Era Main Themes:
1. The defeat of Napoleon and the diplomatic settlement of the Congress of Vienna restored the
conservative political and social order in Europe ("Age of Reaction").
2. The period of 1815-1848 is a time of confrontation of the conservative order with potential
sources
of unrest found in the forces of liberalism, nationalism, and popular sovereignty.
3. 19c liberals wanted to limit the arbitrary power of governments against the persons and
property
of individual citizens.
4. Liberalism was often complimentary to nationalism in Germany, Italy, and the Austrian Empire.
5. Russia took the lead in suppressing liberal and nationalistic tendencies.
6. In Britain, the forces of conservatism and reason made accommodations with each other
because
it had a large commercial and industrial class, a tradition of liberal Whig aristocrats, and a
strong
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respect for civil liberties.
7. Romantisicm emerged as a reaction against the rationalist thinking of the Enlightenment.
I. 19c Liberalism: ---> make moderate changes gradually (not "liberal" in the 20c sense of the
word.)
A. Those excluded from the existing political process; they were NOT democratic.
B. Hostile to the privileged aristocracy.
C. They were contemptuous of the unpropertied class.
D. From the middle class --> bourgeois.
E. They sought the removal of economic restraints (laissez-faire economics).
II. Revolutions (1820-1830):
A. Spain (1820) --> unsuccessful.
B. Italy (1821) --> unsuccessful.
C. Latin America (1804-1823) --> some successful.
-- Monroe Doctrine.
-- these revolutions breached the Metternich system for the first time and encouraged
other
peoples seeking democracy and independence
D. Russia (1825) --> Decembrist Revolt; unsuccessful --> "Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and
Nationalism!" reinforced by Nicholas I.
E. France (1830) --> Louis Philippe (liberal middle-class leadership) --> the "Citizen King."
F. Belgium (1830) --> successful (1839--> Belgium secured international recognition of its
independence and neutrality).
G. Poland (1830) --> crushed by the Czar.
III. Britain: ---> it achieved some democratic reforms through evolution, not revolution.
A. Reform Bill of 1832:
-- first to establish the Bourbon family.
-- reduced property qualifications for voting so as to enfranchise the middle class.
-- took representation away from "rotten" boroughs.
-- this bill shifted control of the House of Commons from the landed aristocracy to
the commercial and industrial middle class.
B. Chartist Movement ("People's Charter")
-- members were disenfranchised city workers.
-- for universal manhood suffrage.
-- equal election districts.
-- the secret ballot.
-- annual elections of Parliament.
-- removal of property qualifications for members of Parliament.
-- it died out following its failure to secure reforms from Parliament in 1848, but in
subsequent reforms bills (1867, 1884, 1911) all of their demands were enacted into law.
IV. Romanticism (1780-1830s):
A. All literature that failed to observe classical forms and gave free play to imagination.
B. Glorified both the individual person and individual cultures.
C. It made a major contribution to the emergence of nationalism by emphasizing the worth of
each separate culture.
D. A lifestyle in tune with nature.
E. Idealized the medieval and gothic styles in literature (new genre--> gothic novel) and the arts.
I. The senses should acquire knowledge, but it had to be interpreted (Kant).
Industrialization & Social Unrest 19th Century Main Themes:
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1. A basic cause of peasant discontent in the mid-18c was the growing desire of landlords to
change
the traditional ways of production in order to maximize their profits. (ex: enclosure movement)
2. As in agriculture, Britain took the lead in the Industrial Revolution, favored as it was by rich
deposits of coal and iron ore, a stable political structure, consumer demand from the colonies, a
law-tax structure and relative social stability.
3. The middle classes tended to measure success in monetary terms and were increasingly
dissatisfied
with their lack of political influence.
4. Classical economists dominated policy discussions in the mid-19c.
5. The early socialists generally applauded the new productive capacity of industrialism but
decried
industrial mismanagement and thought that human society should be organized as a
community
rather than merely as a conglomerate of selfish individuals.
6. Marx believed that class conflict in the 19c had become simplified into a struggle between the
bourgeoisie and the proletariat, a struggle which the proletariat would eventually win and
which would result in a property-less and class-less society.
7. In 1848, a series of unsuccessful liberal and national revolutions spread across the continent.
I. Industrialization: ---> the changes in manufacturing methods and the effects of the machine on
humanity.
A. Roots:
-- the Renaissance spirit (seeking material goods).
-- the scientific approach in solving problems (Scientific Revolution).
-- the Commercial Revolution.
-- the putting-out (domestic) system.
B. Economic Results:
-- factory system.
-- higher standard of living.
-- introduction of modern, laissez-faire capitalism:
-- private ownership of property.
-- free enterprise.
-- profit motive.
-- competition.
-- market economy (Law of Supply and Demand).
-- economic competition among nations (protective tariffs).
-- labor problems.
-- new economic theories --> Adam Smith, Malthus, Ricardo, Mill.
C. Political Results:
-- rise of the middle and working classes as new political power groups.
-- aid to nationalism.
-- impetus to imperialism.
-- the rise of labor unions as a political force.
D. Social Results:
-- a more socially dynamic society (with new levels of social classes).
-- increase in population.
-- growth of cities and the problems resulting from this.
-- improved status of women.
-- new family patterns.
-- more leisure time.
-- impetus to universal education.
-- humanitarian/social reform movements increase to meet the problems created by
industrialization.
E. They sought the removal of economic restraints (laissez-faire economics).
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II. Socialism:
A. The government is seen as the representative of the people and owns and operates the
major means
of production and distribution.
B. The government determines the needs of the people and provides goods and services for
the people's use.
C. The government plans the economy, it allocates capital, directs the flow of raw materials,
and provides for
the workers according to their needs.
D. Utopian Socialists --> Saint-Simon, Owen, Fourier (they lacked any meaningful political
following).
E. Fabian Socialists --> mostly in Britain.
F. Marxism --> The Communist Manifesto & Das Kapital.
-- historically, the organization of the means of production has always involved conflict
between the
classes who owned and controlled the means of production and those classes who
worked for them.
-- only radical social transformation can eliminate the social and economic evils that are
inherent in the
very structure of production.
-- economic interpretation of history.
-- class struggle.
-- inevitability of communism (capitalism has within it the seeds of its own ultimate
destruction).
III. The Revolutions of 1848:
A. Causes:
-- food shortages and unemployment.
-- a new willingness of political liberals to ally with the working classes in order to put
increased pressure on the government, even though the new allies had different aims.
-- a movement to create national states that would reorganize or replace existing political
entities (nationalism).
-- unprecedented economic growth.
-- increased influence of socialism as a political force.
B. France --> temporarily successful only.
-- Louis Blanc.
-- eventual election of Napoleon III and the creation of the Second French Republic, then
Second French
Empire.
C. Austrian Empire --> unsuccessful
-- Bohemians, Italians, and Hungarians (Louis Kossuth).
-- these revolutions forced Metternich to flee the country.
-- serfdom was abolished.
D. Italy & Germany --> unsuccessful
-- Sardinia-Piedmont retained its new liberal constitution.
-- Prussia adopted an undemocratic constitution (the conservatives regain control here!).
E. Effects of these revolutions (Why did they fail??)
-- brought about the downfall of Metternich and his "Concert of Europe."
-- a republic and universal manhood suffrage in France.
-- a liberal constitution in Piedmont-Sardinia.
-- abolition of serfdom in Austria.
-- these revolutions marked the last effort in 19c Europe to overthrow reactionary
governments by revolution alone.
-- the European middle class ceased to be revolutionary. It became increasingly
concerned about the protection of its property against radical political and social movements.
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-- the political initiative passed from the liberals to the conservatives and socialists.
F. Anarchism
19th Century Nationalism& Imperialism Main Themes:
1. The Crimean War (1854-1856) shattered the image of an invincible Russia and ended the
"Concert
of Europe.
2. The emergence of a unified Germany and Italy revealed the weakness of both France and the
Hapsburg Empire.
3. While the continental nations became unified and struggled toward internal political
restructuring,
Britain continued to symbolize the confident liberal state.
4. Between 1850 and 1875, the major contours of the political systems that would dominate
Europe until
World War I had been drawn.
I. Unification Movements:
A. Italy:
-- Piedmont-Sardinia took the lead under Cavour (the "Head" of the It. Unif. Movement).
-- Mazzini and "Young Italy" (the "Heart" of the It. Unif. Movement).
-- Garibaldi and his "Red Shirts" from the south (the "Sword" of the It. Unif. Movement).
-- the role of Napoleon III?
-- Austro-Sardinian War (1866-1867).
-- Italy's problems after unification:
-- weak government.
-- Church hostility.
-- poor economic conditions.
-- lack of major raw materials necessary for rapid industrialization.
-- Italian militarism and ambition for colonies.
B. Germany:
-- the Frankfurt Assembly (1848).
-- Bismarck --> the role he played in German unification?
-- the Danish War (1864).
-- the Austro-Prussian War (1866).
-- the North German Confederation (1867).
-- the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871).
-- Napoleon III --> what role did he play in German unification?
-- the German Empire under Bismarck:
-- autocracy, yet some social reforms (national insurance, etc.).
-- Prussian domination (Junkers).
-- rapid industrialization.
-- militarism.
-- persecution of Catholics --> Kulturkampf laws.
-- measures taken against socialists.
-- anti-Semitic propaganda increases.
-- reconstruct a new balance of power on the European continent -- Congress of
Berlin.
-- the German Empire under Kaiser Wilhelm II (1888-1918):
-- militarism (built up the army and navy --> naval arms buildup contest with Britain).
-- the creation of a German colonial empire --> German imperialism in Africa
II. Liberal Britain:
A. The Reform Act of 1867 --> further reduced property qualifications for voting.
B. Gladstone's ministries witnessed the culmination of British liberalism (Ex: the Education
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Act of 1870). -->
"Lesser (or Smaller) Britain imperialist policy; home rule for Ireland.
C. Disraeli and the Tory party cultivation of the growing labor vote through reforms of their
own --> a "Greater
Britain" imperialist policy --> The sun never sets on the British Empire! (Queen Victoria as
Empress of India).
D. The "Irish Question" was a major issue in British politics in the late 19c.
E. Late 19c economic decline --> WHY?? (new eco. superpowers on the horizon --> US,
Germany, Japan).
III. Mid- to Late-19c France:
A. France under Napoleon III ( ** See notes given in class ** )
B. The short-lived Paris "Commune."
C. The Third French Republic (1875-1940):
-- several government scandals (Ex: the Boulanger Affair).
-- the Dreyfus Affair (this split the politics of France into two ideological camps --> the
socialists vs. the
conservatives; and caused social and political divisions and, suspicions that would
continue to
mark this government until the German occupation of France in 1940.
IV. Disruption of Multi-National Empires:
A. The Austrian Empire under Emperor Franz Joseph:
-- "divide-and-rule" policy. (Keep the multi-national groups at each others' throats).
-- Dual Monarchy (Compromise of 1867) --> co-empire of Austria-Hungary.
B. the Turkish (Ottoman) Empire --> the "Sick Man of Europe"
-- Balkan discontent --> the "Powderkeg of Europe".
-- Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878) --> Russia became more influential in the Balkans
(protector of
Orthodox Christians).
-- First Balkan War (1912-1913) --> when the Balkans became a series of independent
nation-states,
the largest being Serbia.
-- the "Young Turk" revolution for Turkish modernization under Mustafa Kemal Ataturk.
C. Russia:
-- Czar Alexander II was only a reformer within the limits of his own autocracy
(emancipated the Russian
serfs). He was assassinated in 1881 by an anarchist.
-- Czar Alexander III, his son, ended any reforms and ruled through strong autocratic
measures.
V. Major Political Trends at the End of the 19c:
A. The unity of nations was no longer based on dynastic links, but on ethnic, cultural,
linguistic and historical bonds.
B. The major sources of future discontent would arise from the demands of labor to enter the
political processes and the still unsatisfied aspirations of subject nationalities.
19th Century Thought/Culture Main Themes:
1. By 1900, thinkers had drawn new conclusions for traditional problems.
2. Christianity underwent a strong attack.
3. By the end of the 19c, scientists had made major changes in the Newtonian picture of the
physical world.
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4. A new aggressive nationalism replaced the humanitarian ideals of liberalism and socialism.
5. the social context of intellectual life changed during this period because for the first time,
Europe had a mass reading public, with literacy improved by the proliferation of state financed
education.
6. New concepts and technologies challenged the basic presuppositions of science, rationalism,
liberalism, and bourgeoisie (Victorian) morality.
I. Late 19c Society: ---> La Belle Epoch
A. The "Victorian" Age:
-- appearance were everything.
-- middle-class domination (bourgeois values).
-- high moral standards.
-- strict social codes (especially of etiquette and class status).
-- interest in social reform for the lower classes.
B. Christianity Under Attack:
-- new scientific theories (Darwinism, psychoanalysis) threatened traditional religious
values and views
of man.
-- historical scholarship (especially archaeology) questioned the veracity of the Bible.
-- philosophers (like Nietzsche) cast doubt on the morality of Christianity ("God is Dead"
movement).
-- organized religion came under attack from the secular state (especially because of the
government’s
expanding role in education).
-- religious revival:
-- Pope Pius IX --> the doctrine of papal infallibility.
-- Pope Leo XIII (Rerum Novarum) --> addressed the great social issues of the day,
condemning socialism but urging improvements in the conditions of labor.
C. Expansion of literacy.
D. Anti-Semitism (especially Dreyfus Affair).
E. Second Industrial Revolution (1850-1914).
II. New Ideas:
A. Darwinism --> The Origin of Species.
-- evolution according to natural selection.
-- "survival of the fittest".
-- Social Darwinism --> its effects on political ideology? (used as a justification for imperialism).
B. Albert Einstein
-- Theory of Relativity (expressed the complex relationship of matter, space, motion, and time).
-- a small amount of matter could be converted into a tremendous amount of energy (E = mc2).
C. Sigmund Freud
-- psychoanalysis.
-- the importance of sexuality to the human mind. (Civilization depended on the sublimation of
sexual energy.)
-- the importance of the human consciousness. (Division of the inner realm of the mind into the id,
ego, and superego.)
D. Friedrich Nietzsche
-- he condemned Christianity as a slave religion and democracy as the rule of the mediocre.
-- a small group of "supermen" (Übermensch) would eventually dominate the world.
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-- his philosophy (along with other earlier 19c German philosophers) provided the philosophical
background for 20c Nazism.
III. Late 19c & Early 20c Art Movements:
A. Impressionism/Post-Impressionism (1840s-1880s):
-- a revolt against realism.
-- they expressed not a photographic accuracy, but the artist's personal feelings or
"impressions" of his subject.
-- great use of light and brilliant colors.
-- Manet, Degas, Renoir, Monet, Gaugin, Van Gogh, Cezanne, Latrec.
-- How did this art movement reflect the intellectual atmosphere of late 19c Europe??
B. Cubism (1890-1920s):
-- beginning of abstract painting.
-- forerunner of the modern art movement.
-- the artist sees an object from all angles/sides at the same time.
-- a protest against war and brutality.
-- Picasso, Matisse, Modigliani, etc.
C. Surrealism (1914-1940s) --> Salvador Dali.
D. Functionalism (in architecture) --> Frank Lloyd Wright (US), Bauhaus movement.
MAJOR PEACE TREATIES
PEACE OF AUGSBURG: (1555)
-- Protestant religious wars in the Holy Roman Empire.
-- Charles V's attempts to deal with Catholics and Lutherans (Calvinists and Anabaptists not
included).
-- cujus regio, ejus religio (the ruler of the land would determine the religion of the land).
THE EDICT OF NANTES: (1598) --> end the religious wars in France between Huguenots &
Catholics.
-- Huguenots were given freedom of religion.
-- Huguenots got equal political rights with the Catholics.
-- Huguenots could have military fortifications.
-- Huguenots were allowed self-government in 100 French cities.
TREATY OF WESTPHALIA: (1648) --> ended the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648)
-- content (** see your notes for political and religious results of this treaty. **)
-- long-range effects:
-- it ended a century of religious conflict (religious extremism burned out the populace of
Europe).
-- it broke Hapsburg power and ended their domination of Europe.
-- a balance of power emerged through a series of ever-changing political alliances.
-- the center of political power shifted from Central Europe and the Mediterranean to the
nations of Atlantic coast.
TREATY OF UTRECHT: (1713-1714) --> Ended war’s of Louis XIV- set pre Rev. borders
PEACE OF PARIS: (1763) --> ended the Seven Year's War
-- French commercial and colonial dominance passed to Britain.
CONGRESS OF VIENNA: (1814-1815) --> ended the Napoleonic Wars.
-- legitimacy (rightful, legitimate rulers deposed by the French Revolution or Napoleon were
restored to power).
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-- compensation (the nations that made important contributions to Napoleon's defeat were
compensated by territory).
Russia --> got Finland and most of Poland.
Prussia --> got part of Poland and various German territories, including some
bordering the Rhine River.
Britain --> got colonial possessions that it had occupied during the war, including
Malta, Ceylon, and South Africa.
-- victorious nations that gave up territory were compensated by other territories.
Holland --> lost Ceylon and South Africa but got Belgium.
Austria --> lost Belgium but got Lombardy and Venetia.
Sweden --> lost Finland but got Norway.
TREATY OF FRANKFURT: (1871) --> ended the Franco-Prussian War.
-- France ceded to Germany Alsace and Lorraine (rich in coal and iron).
-- France agreed to pay Germany a huge war indemnity.
-- France consented to German military occupation until the indemnity was paid.
-- results?
-- by treating France harshly, Bismarck planted the seeds of hatred and revenge which
helped lead to World War I and to the harsh treatment of a defeated Germany after the war.
CONGRESS OF BERLIN: (1876) --> an attempt by Bismarck to solve the Balkan problems.
-- Turkey granted Austria-Hungary the So. Slavic provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
-- Turkey gave Britain the Mediterranean island of Cyprus.
-- Serbia, Montenegro and Romania became independent of Ottoman control.
-- Bulgaria was given self-government within the Ottoman Empire.
-- Russia was given certain Balkan territories along her southwestern border.
VERSAILLES TREATY: (1919) --> ended World War I
-- President Woodrow Wilson's "Fourteen Points"
-- territorial
-- Germany surrendered Alsace-Lorraine to France.
-- Germany gave over the Saar Valley to League of Nations authority and Saar coal
mines to France control with the provision that, after 15 years, the Saar inhabitants would decide
their own political fate by a plebiscite.
-- the port of Danzig on the Baltic Sea placed under League of Nations control and
open for Polish use.
-- Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia (Sudetenland a future problem), Yugoslavia,
Poland emerge as new nations.
-- colonial
-- Germany ceded all its colonies to the Allies to be held as League of Nations
mandates.
-- secret arrangements made during the war and incorporated in League of Nations
mandates in the Middle East (Sykes-Picot Agreement, Balfour Declaration,
-- disarmament (prevent Germany from ever waging war again)
-- German army was limited to 100,000 volunteers.
-- the Rhineland was demilitarized.
-- German navy reduced to a few small ships.
-- submarines, military aircraft, and war industries were prohibited.
-- war guilt clause (Germany was held solely responsible for starting World War I).
-- Germany must pay reparations
-- League of Nations created.
MARSHALL PLAN: (1947) -->economic recovery program for Europe after World War II.
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