What You Should Know From TH2- Church History 2
Lakeside Institute of Theology
1. What is Church History?
 The story of the origin, growth and development of the Christian faith and
the Christian Church, starting about AD 30, following the resurrection of
Jesus Christ.
2. Why is Church History important for us?
 The Christian message is rooted in the fact that God entered human
history; Christianity is uniquely historical.
 The history of the Church also is the story of how God the Holy Spirit has
continued to act through men and women of the faith.
 Without understanding the past, we are unable to accurately understand
ourselves or our faith.
 A knowledge of Church history can keep us from repeating past mistakes
and falling into past errors.
3. What major events in the Catholic Church contributed to an environment
that made the Protestant Reformation possible?
 The Avignon Papacy (or the “Babylonian Captivity” of the Church) – 13091376. Following a decade of severe conflict between Pope Boniface VIII
and King Philip IV of France, a French pope was elected to try to bring
peace. That pope – Clement V – then decided to live in Avignon, France,
rather than in Rome, eventually taking the entire Vatican operation with
him. Over the next 67 years, seven successive popes lived in Avignon
and came more and more under the control of the French crown, greatly
diminishing respect for the papacy.
 The Great Schism – 1378-1414. Two years after Pope Gregory XI moved
the papacy from Avignon back to Rome, he died and in 1378 was
succeeded by an Italian – Urban VI. Soon after Urban’s election,
however, the cardinals who elected him found him so difficult they left
Rome and elected a different pope – Clement VII – who chose to rule from
Avignon. This started the Great Schism, during which there were multiple
competing claimants to the papacy. This continued until 1409, when the
Council of Pisa met and deposed the two sitting popes (Benedict XIII and
Gregory XII), electing a new pope in Alexander V. But the various popes
refused to step down – so now there were three popes! In 1414 a new
council – the Council of Constance – convinced Gregory and Alexander to
step down, deposed and exiled Benedict, and elected Martin V to end the
Schism – but not before most of Europe has seen the political ambition
and pettiness of the Church.
4. What was the “conciliar movement” in the Church?
 The conciliar movement was a 14th and 15th century effort to have ecumenical
councils of the Church acknowledged as the ultimate authority (over the
papacy) in matters of doctrine and in times of conflict. This movement was
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especially important in trying to address the Great Schism of 1378-1414. But
later councils (especially the Council of Ferrara – 1438-45) themselves
caused division and confusion and so lost their perceived authority, allowing
the popes to again rule the Catholic Church unchallenged.
5. Who was John Wycliffe, and why was he important?
 John Wycliffe (1328-1384) was an English priest, preacher and professor
who lived during the time of the Avignon Papacy. During this time
opposition to French influence on the Church prompted English laws
limiting the pope’s authority in England, with Wycliffe contributing writings
on “dominion” that claimed any ruler (including the pope) who does not act
in the best interest of his subjects should be opposed. This made Wycliffe
very popular in England, and his further writings established many of the
ideas that would be part of the Protestant Reformation two centuries later
– the importance of the Bible in native languages, rejection of
transubstantiation, definition of the true Church as the elect believers
(rather than the pope & hierarchy), etc.
 Wycliffe eventually fell out of favor because he insisted his ideas on
dominion also applied to English government; the Pope issued five papal
bulls against him, and some of his Oxford University colleagues declared
him a heretic – but he was still allowed to write up until his death.
 His writings continued to have great influence (especially in Bohemia) and
lay followers of his teachings, called “Lollards,” continued to preach for
many years, despite being severely persecuted.
6. Who was John Huss, and why was he important?
 John Huss (1362-1415) was a Bohemian (Czech) professor and preacher
who lived during the time of the Great Schism in the Church. Ties with
Oxford University brought Wycliffe’s writing to Bohemia, where they were
very influential. When Huss started preaching moral reform he got in
trouble with the local archbishop (who had purchased his position), who
asked the pope for help suppressing Huss. Huss refused to desist, and
refused to go to Rome to answer for his disobedience, finally declaring
that an unworthy pope should not be obeyed.
 Like Wycliffe, Huss’ ideas presaged the ideas of the Reformation by over
100 years, including the Bible as ultimate authority, the fallacy of papal
indulgences, the need for God’s word to be preached freely and in the
local language, communion “in both kinds,” that clergy should not be
wealthy or hold public office, etc.
 Huss was excommunicated twice. He agreed to attend the Council of
Constance under a promise of safe passage by Emperor Sigismund, but
when he arrived he was arrested, tried and burned at the stake.
7. Who was Girolamo Savonarola, and why was he important?
 A Dominican monk who, in 1490, moved to Florence and started teaching.
His teaching – especially on the incompatibility of true Christian life with a
love of luxury – was very popular with common people but angered the
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wealthy. He became prior of the monastery of St. Mark and so reformed it
that it became famous for scholarship, holiness and service – leading
other monasteries in Italy to ask for his help.
Savonarola became a great hero when he successfully interceded with a
French king who threatening to sack Florence.
Savonarola was known for the “bonfire of the vanities” – in which people
would burn in a public bonfire those things they valued too much, as an
act of contrition and discipleship.
Opposition from the pope – which affected the whole city of Florence –
began to turn people against Savonarola, who was taken by a mob,
tortured (though he never confessed to any wrongdoing), hanged and
burned. Savonarola became a model for piety and holiness against greed
and love of luxury (which plagued the Church), and many even today
believe he should be sainted.
8. What was the Protestant Reformation?
 The move to reform the doctrinal beliefs and practices of the Catholic
Church which eventually led to a split in the Church and the formation of
various Protestant groups, the most important of which (early on) were the
Lutherans, Calvinists (or Reformed), and Anabaptists.
9. What is the accepted date for the beginning of the Protestant Reformation,
and what event is seen to have started the Reformation?
 1517, when Martin Luther nailed his “ninety-Five Theses” to the door of
Wittenberg Cathedral, challenging the Catholic Church, especially
regarding the sale of indulgences.
10. Who was Martin Luther, and why was he important?
 Martin Luther (1483-1546) was a monk, priest and professor of theology
who was a key leader in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. While
Luther was on the faculty of the University of Wittenberg in Germany, a
Dominican monk named John Tetzel was sent to Germany to sell papal
indulgences – with half the profits going to Leo X in Rome to help build St.
Peter’s basilica; and half to go to local bishop/ruler Albert of Brandenburg.
 On October 31, 1517 (the date accepted as the beginning of the
Protestant Reformation) Luther posted 95 theses (in the form of questions)
on the door of the Wittenberg Cathedral, questioning this sale of
indulgences.
 In 1520 Pope Leo X demanded that Luther retract his writings, but he
refused. In 1521 Luther was called to appear before Emperor Charles V
at the Diet of Worms, where he again was ordered to retract his writing –
and again he refused. He was excommunicated and condemned as an
outlaw, but on leaving Worms Luther was taken secretly to Wartburg
Castle by men of Frederick the Wise of Saxony (in whose provinces
Wittenberg lay). Luther stayed at Wartburg for a year, translating the New
Testament into German – and in the process both giving the German
people the Scripture and also creating the modern German language.
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Over the next 24 years, Luther was perhaps more responsible for the
growth and development of Protestantism in Europe than any other
person, fending off or side-stepping any and all attempts to stop or silence
him.
11. What, in terms of the Catholic Church, is an “indulgence?”
 An indulgence is a grant, given by the pope or Catholic Church hierarchy,
which shortens the time one is required to spend in temporal punishment
in purgatory. An indulgence typically was granted in return for special
services to the church or other good deeds, including (in the Middle Ages)
a financial contribution to the Church. Rejection of indulgences as
unbiblical was one thing that led to the Protestant Reformation.
12. Who was Ulrich Zwingli, and why was he important?
 Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) was a priest who became the leader of the 16th
century Protestant reform movement in Switzerland. Many of the
Reformation ideas being developed by Martin Luther in Germany occurred
to and were being implemented at the same time by Zwingli in Zurich.
13. Who was John Calvin, and why was he important?
 John Calvin (1509-1564) was a French lawyer who fled Protestant
persecution in France to become the primary theologian and religious
leader of the Protestant city of Geneva. While he was of the 2 nd
generation of Reformers, Calvin became unquestionably the chief
systematic theologian of the Reformation, and was the founder of
Reformed theology and Reformed and Presbyterian churches around the
world.
14. Who were the Anabaptists, and why were they almost universally
persecuted?
 While the ideas behind the Anabaptist movement occurred in many
places, it was in Zurich that they first became organized as a church.
Their key principles were an opposition to infant baptism in favor of adult
believer’s baptism; extreme pacifism; absolute separation of church and
state; radical egalitarianism (full equality between women and men);
separation from non-Christian persons and influences; and refusal to
swear oaths, serve in the military, or take any public office.
 More than their religious beliefs, it was the Anabaptist refusal to swear
oaths of loyalty, serve in the military, or defend their countries that
convinced most civil and religious authorities the Anabaptists were
disloyal, untrustworthy and divisive – and that their religion therefore must
be stamped out.
15. Who was responsible for establishing Protestantism in England by
launching the English Reformation and founding the Church of England,
and why?
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The Church of England was founded in 1534 by King Henry VIII (14911547). Henry had been a firm Catholic most of his younger life – he was
even named a “Defender of the Faith” in 1521 by Pope Leo X. But when
his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, did not produce a male heir, Henry
requested an annulment from the pope so he could marry again. His
grounds for the annulment were that Catherine had been married to
Henry’s brother Arthur until Arthur’s death, and Church law forbade the
marrying of your brother’s widow – even though a papal dispensation had
been provided to allow Catherine and Henry to marry. Unfortunately for
Henry, Catherine was the aunt of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, whom
the pope did not want to offend, so no annulment was granted.
Eventually Henry, in his frustration, had the English Parliament declare
him the supreme head of the Church of England, that his marriage to
Catherine was annulled, and that any who didn’t agree were guilty of
treason. Henry went on to have six wives, with one male heir (Edward,
from Jane Seymour), and two daughters – Mary Tudor from Catherine and
Elizabeth from Ann Boleyn.
It should be noted that Henry had no interest in Protestantism as it was
developing under Luther and others – the Church of England under Henry
looked exactly like the Catholic Church had in worship and structure,
except that there was no longer any connection to the Pope.
16. What happened to the Church of England after Henry VIII died?
 Henry had arranged that he would be succeeded by his only son, Edward,
followed if needed by his daughters, Mary Tudor and Elizabeth, in order of
birth. Edward IV was only nine-years-old when he became king, and only
lived for another six years. But even in his youth Edward insisted that
Protestantism in the Church of England become “less Catholic” – with
married clergy, no images in churches, communion in both kinds, and
liturgy in English instead of Latin.
 Upon Edward’s death in 1553, his sister Mary Tudor came to the throne.
As daughter of the very Catholic Catherine of Aragon, and having suffered
the indignation of being made illegitimate when Henry denied Catholicism
and annulled his marriage to Catherine, Mary was determined to turn
England back to Catholicism and so launched an aggressive antiProtestant persecution that gained her the name “Bloody Mary.”
 When Mary died in 1558, Elizabeth became queen and ruled for 45 years.
In that time she returned the Church of England to Protestantism, but
without the more radical aspects her brother Edward had advocated. In
worship, the Church of England looked very Catholic, while in theology it
was Calvinist – a balance which (along with reasonable tolerance for
religious differences) kept the peace as long as Elizabeth lived.
17. How did Protestantism finally become legal in the Low Countries?
 Before the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg were nations, they
were a very diverse group of territories called the Seventeen Colonies,
controlled by the Catholic Holy Roman Emperor Charles V.
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In 1555 Charles put the Provinces under his son, who later became the
Spanish King Philip II. Philip was very intolerant of Protestants –
especially since a great many Calvinist preachers had settled in the area
and were winning converts. Philip and his sister Margaret of Parma (who
served as Regent when Philip was in Spain), ruthlessly persecuted
Protestants, eventually sending in an army under the Duke of Alba that
executed thousands of men, women and children simply for being
Protestants. William, Prince of Orange, tried to intercede but had limited
success other than to drag out the conflict, and he eventually was killed by
an assassin paid by Philip. But William’s 19-year-old son Maurice proved
to be a better general, winning a number of battles and convincing Spain
to sign a permanent truce and allow Protestantism into the area that later
became the Netherlands.
18. How did Protestantism finally become legal in France?
 In the 16th century French King Francis I, though himself a Catholic,
supported Protestants in Germany to create problems for his political rival
Emperor Charles V – which meant Francis could do little to oppose
Protestants (called Huguenots) in his own country.
 When Francis died, his sons took over in succession (Henry II, Francis II,
Charles IX), with his wife Catherine de Medici being regent and powerbroker. For political reasons Catherine (who was Catholic) supported the
Huguenots against her rivals, the Catholic House of Guise.
 In response to Catherine’s 1562 Edict of St. Germain, which gave limited
freedom of worship to the Huguenots, the Guise faction began massacring
unarmed Huguenots, which prompted a series of wars. But during a truce
after the 1570 war, Henry Duke of Guise (for revenge) convinced
Catherine and the young king to support a move against the Huguenots.
 So on August 24th, 1570 – St. Bartholomew’s Day – over 2000 Huguenots
who had gathered in Paris for the wedding of the king’s sister were
surprised and murdered in what became known as the St. Bartholomew
Day Massacre. The slaughter spread through the country, but the
Huguenots had a number of fortified cities so the Catholics were not able
to wipe them out.
 The next rightful heir was Henry III – a Protestant – whom the Catholics
did not want, so the Catholic Guise family produced a “document” that
supposedly made Henry of Guise a direct descendant of Charlemagne
and so heir to the throne. Henry of Guise marched on Paris and claimed
the throne. But Henry III turned the tables, surprising and massacring
Henry of Guise and his followers. In the ensuing battle Henry III fled to the
camp of next-in-line-for-the-throne Henry Bourbon, but the king (Henry III)
was assassinated by a fanatical monk. [NOTE that there are THREE
Henrys in this story – King Henry III, Catholic Henry of Guise, and
(usually) Protestant Henry Bourbon.]
 Henry Bourbon became Henry IV and in 1598 issued the Edict of Nantes
which granted reasonable freedom of worship throughout France – which
made sense, since Henry had previously changed his own religious
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affiliation FIVE times! After Henry was assassinated in 1610, his young
son Louis XIII became king, with his mother Marie de Medici (and her
Catholic Italian advisors) as regent.
In 1622 Cardinal Richelieu effectively took over power in France, though
technically he was only advisor to the king. Richelieu was politically,
rather than theologically, motivated. He persecuted the Huguenots not for
religious reasons, but because they possessed fortresses which Richelieu
saw as a potential threat. Once the Huguenot cities were taken, Richelieu
left them alone.
In 1643 Louis XIV became king and – as he grew up – tried to stamp out
all Protestants as dissidents, abolishing the tolerance of the Edict of
Nantes and making it illegal to be a Protestant. This led to a mass exodus
of Protestants from France which so impoverished the country that it may
have led eventually to the French Revolution.
Those Huguenots who stayed in France worshiped in secret and became
known as “the Church in the Desert.” If captured, pastors were executed,
men sent to galley ships as slaves, women were imprisoned for life, and
children were given to Catholic families.
Not until 1787 and Louis XVI was ongoing religious tolerance finally
decreed in France.
19. What was the 1555 Peace of Augsburg, and what was wrong with it?
 The Peace of Augsburg was a treaty between Emperor Charles V (a
Catholic) and Lutheran princes of Germany, allowing the princes to
determine whether the people in their areas would be Catholic or Lutheran
as long as they did not seek to spread Lutheranism.
 There were three problems with the Peace of Augsburg:
i. The only Protestant option it allowed was Lutheranism, with
Calvinists, Anabaptists and others still being illegal.
ii. It maintained the “ecclesiastical reservation,” which said any area
previously controlled by a Catholic bishop would remain Catholic,
even if that bishop became Lutheran.
iii. There was no way to limit the infectious spread of Protestantism, no
matter what any treaty said.
20. What was the “Defenestration of Prague?”
 The trigger that sparked the Thirty Years War. When advisors to King
Ferdinand of Bohemia refused to even listen to objections by Protestant
leaders, two of the king’s advisors were thrown out a window –
“defenestration.” (They fell into a pile of garbage & were not seriously hurt.)
21. What was the Thirty Years War (1618-1648)?
 A war that was ostensibly religious (though there were many political
motivations) that devastated Germany and much of central Europe for
most of the first half of the 17th Century.
 As the 1555 Peace of Augsburg started to break down in Germany, cities
and areas started declaring for Protestantism. When the Protestant city of
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Donauworth, at the edge of Catholic Bavaria, attacked monks for parading
outside their monastery, Duke Maximilian of Bavaria showed up with an
army and started forcing people to convert to Catholicism.
In response the Lutherans formed the Evangelical Union to prepare for
war, and the Catholics did the same by forming the Catholic League
(which was much larger).
In Bohemia a great many German Calvinist immigrants had considerably
increased the Protestant population, prompting King Ferdinand of
Bohemia (who later became Emperor Ferdinand II) to make laws
restricting Protestantism. When Protestants objected and the king’s
advisors would not listen, two of those advisors were thrown out a window
– causing the start of the Thirty Years War.
The Bohemians asked Frederick, elector of the Palatinate, to become their
king, and Emperor Ferdinand responded by sending a Catholic army
under Maximilian of Bavaria to invade Bohemia and depose Frederick –
which they did. They then passed an edict that everyone in Bohemia had
to convert to Catholicism by Easter 1626 or leave the country – which
(along with war casualties) led to an 80% decline in the population of
Bohemia over the next 30 years.
In 1625 England, Denmark and the Netherlands sided with the Evangelical
Union to oppose Ferdinand, but the emperor recruited a second army and
the invading Danes were forced to accept a truce and retreat.
Then young Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus invaded Germany to
defend the Protestants and limit the Hapsburg family’s power. After
winning many battles and the hearts and support of the people, Adolphus
crushed the primary Catholic army at Lutzen, but was killed in the battle.
The Spanish Hapsburgs then sent an army to support their cousin
Ferdinand, which caused the French to step in to help the Protestants
(even though France was at that time controlled by Catholic Cardinal
Richelieu).
Ferdinand II died and his son Ferdinand III was much more tolerant –
especially since everyone was tired of war. The 1648 Peace of
Westphalia ended the Thirty Years War and gave Catholics, Lutherans
and Calvinists the right to follow their conscience in religion.
22. What was the Puritan Revolution in England?
 The Puritan Revolution was the struggle, after the death of Elizabeth I, to
reform the Church of England by making it less Catholic in worship and
more Presbyterian in governance. This conflict eventually led to civil war
and the execution of King Charles I.
 During her life Queen Elizabeth was able to balance a Church of England
that looked Catholic in its worship but was Calvinist in its theology, while
offering considerable religious freedom. But after her death, when James
IV of Scotland (son of Mary Stuart) became James I of England, the
English Calvinists (known as “Puritans”) thought the time had come to
complete the reform of worship and governance in the Church of England.
But James I believed his rule as king was dependent on having bishops to
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support him, so he opposed efforts to move away from an episcopal
structure and towards Presbyterianism.
Eventually Parliament (especially the Lower House of Commons) became
more and more Puritan and more opposed to James and his bishops.
Whenever James would call Parliament to get approval for new taxes or
funding, Parliament would instead demand that James deal with their
complaints – so James would dissolve that Parliament and try again later.
When James I died he was succeeded by his son Charles I, and things
got worse. Charles forced through anti-Puritan laws in England and
Scotland, until finally Scotland rebelled. When Charles asked Parliament
for help dealing with the Scottish rebellion, Parliament sided with the Scots
– which encouraged the Scottish army to invade England. Charles asked
Parliament to help fight off the invasion but they refused, instead repealing
all anti-Puritan laws, freeing prisoners and passing laws limiting the king’s
power over them.
When it was discovered Charles had been negotiating (though his
Catholic French wife) with the Catholic Irish to invade England, some in
Parliament wanted to try the Queen for treason. Charles accused these
accusers of treason and when Parliament would not turn them over, the
king he sent troops to get them – but they were opposed by the people of
London. Charles fled London and gathered his troop, while Parliament
also put together an army, and the English civil war began.
At this time Parliament called the Westminster Assembly of Divines – a
gathering of theologians and lay people from England and Scotland – for
the purpose of defining a new and Presbyterian form of church worship
and government. The result was the Westminster Confession of Faith – to
this day one of the foundational documents of Reformed Calvinism.
In response to the call to war, Puritan member of Parliament Oliver
Cromwell returned to his home and raised a corps of cavalry to oppose
the king’s cavalry, and his men’s spirituality and dedication inspired the
entire Parliamentary army.
Cromwell’s forces crushed the king’s army at Naseby, and in the king’s
camp they found documentation proving Charles had been encouraging
foreign powers to invade England. When Charles later tried to negotiate
support from the Scottish he was captured and turned over to Parliament.
There was, however, a division between Parliament, made up mostly of
Puritans who wanted a national church (the “Presbyterians”); and the
army, most of whom wanted each church to be self-governing (the
“Independents”). Parliament tried in 1646 to disband the army, but instead
Cromwell and the army decided they better represent the people.
Meanwhile King Charles had escaped and finally gained support in the
Scottish army, but Cromwell’s forces defeated the Scots. The king was
recaptured, then tried for treason and, on January 30, 1649, he was
beheaded.
With chaos threatening, Cromwell took over as Lord Protector, sending a
weak and self-serving Parliament home. He served in this role until his
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death in 1658, quelling violence and rebellions in the kingdom and trying
to reform both church and state.
After Cromwell’s death Parliament recalled the son of Charles I – Charles
II – to be king. Charles II reestablished the episcopal Church of England
and tried to force the same model on Presbyterian Scotland, with little
success. When Charles died, his brother and successor James II tried to
restore Catholicism in Britain, but after three years England rebelled,
James fled to France, and his daughter Mary and her husband William of
Orange were invited to become king and queen of England. They
accepted, and reestablished the Church of England and religious
tolerance as it had existed under Elizabeth I.
23. What was the Catholic Reformation and Counter-Reformation?
 The Catholic Reformation was an effort, which had gone on for many
years before Martin Luther, which attempted to reform the Catholic Church
by dealing with many of the moral problems within the Church – including
simony (purchasing church positions), nepotism (placing relatives in
church positions), pluralism (bishops holding multiple positions),
absenteeism (bishops holding and getting income from bishoprics without
actually being there), and lack of discipline in monasteries. Among other
things, the Catholic Reformation led to the creation of new monastic
orders, including the Jesuits under Ignatius Loyola, and the Discalced
Carmelites under Teresa of Avila.
 The Counter-Reformation was a comprehensive (though late) response by
the Catholic Church to the Protestant Reformation, in an attempt to
respond to and provide polemics against Protestant doctrinal claims. In
essence the Counter-Reformation gave a single focus to all Catholic
efforts at reform by making the Protestants the target. The Council of
Trent (1545-1563) was the pinnacle of Catholic Reformation and CounterReformation efforts.
24. What was the Council of Trent, and why was it important?
 The Council of Trent (1545-1563) was the Catholic response to the
Protestant Reformation by attempting to respond to all of the doctrinal and
ecclesiastical challenges that had been presented by Luther and others of
the Protestant Reformers.
 Included among the many declarations of the Council of Trent was an
affirmation of the Latin Vulgate as authoritative; that Church tradition was
equal to Scripture in authority; that there are seven holy sacraments; that
the Mass is a sacrifice that can be offered for the benefit of the deceased;
that communion in both kinds is not necessary; that justification requires
good works as well as grace; and much more. (In effect, going against
virtually EVERYTHING the Protestant Reformers had been saying.)
 The Council of Trent was the pinnacle of Catholic Counter-Reformation
efforts, establishing standards of Catholic orthodoxy for the next 400
years, and – in effect – creating the modern Catholic Church.
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